AMERICAN,  OR  BALD,  EAGLE, 

(Haliaetus  Leucocephalus) . 


Frontispiece 


BIRDS    OF   THE 
WORLD 


FOR 


YOUNG   PEOPLE 


BY 


CHARLES  R.  KNIGHT 


ELLA  HARDCASTLE 


WITH  FORTY-ONE    COLOUR   PLATES 

AND  NUMEROUS  BLACK-AND-WHITE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


• 


COPYRIGHT,  1909,  BY 
FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 


All  Rights  Reserved 


November,  1909 


PREFACE 

THE  object  in  the  present  volume  has  been  to  give 
a  brief  description  of  such  birds  of  the  world  as  are 
usually  to  be  seen  in  zoological  collections  and  in 
museums,  together  with  some  of  the  most  significant 
and  striking  facts  in  their  life-histories.  To  include 
even  a  very  short  account  of  each  of  the  fourteen  J;hou- 
sand  species  known  to  exist,  was  clearly  impracticable 
within  the  limits  of  a  book  of  this  size.  It  has  been 
thought  desirable,  therefore,  to  give  special  attention 
to  the  birds  of  America,  to  corresponding  species  and 
allied  forms  found  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  to  certain  of  the  more  remarka- 
ble and  interesting  birds  of  other  countries. 

This  work  is  based  upon  one  by  W.  P.  Pycraft, 
well  known  among  ornithologists  as  a  systematist  and 
bird  anatomist,  and  now  in  charge  of  the  Department 
of  Birds  in  the  British  Museum.  Use  has  been  made 
of  a  large  part  of  his  admirable  Introduction,  dealing 
with  the  evolution  and  structure  of  the  bird.  Portions 
of  it  that  were  considered  too  technical  to  be  readily 
understood  by  young  readers  were  simplified  as  much 
as  possible,  other  portions  were  omitted  as  being  of 
comparatively  little  value,  and  a  few  additions  were 

iii 

267886 


iv  PREFACE 

made.     The  general  arrangement  has  been  adhered 
to  throughout. 

The  interest  in  birds  is  widespread  and  constantly 
growing,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  use  of  this  volume 
as  a  reference-book  will  lead  young  readers  to  further 
study  of  this  most  fascinating  subject. 


i 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE iii 

INTRODUCTION xi 

PUBLISHERS'  NOTE xliv 

CHAPTER  I 

OSTRICH-LIKE  BIRDS .  i 

(Orders — Casuarii,    Struthiones,    Apteryges, 
Crypturi.) 

CHAPTER  II 
CARINATE,  OR  KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS    ...         10 

CHAPTER  III 

DIVING-BIRDS,  PETRELS,  AND  PENGUINS       .       .         14 
(Orders — Pygopodes,    Tubinares,    and    Im- 
pennes.) 

CHAPTER  IV 

TOTIPALMATE     BlRDS :     HERONS,     STORKS,     AND 

FLAMINGOES .         23 

(Orders — Steganopodes,  Ardeae,  Ciconae,  and 
Phoenicopteri.) 

CHAPTER  V 

v 

DUCKS,  GEESE,  AND  SWANS       .   •    .'    .    "  .      ,        44 
( Order — Anseres. ) 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VI 

BIRDS  OF  PREY:  SECRETARY-BIRD,  EAGLES, 
BUZZARDS,  HAWKS,  KITES,  VULTURES,  AND 
FALCONS 56 

( Order — Accipitres. ) 


CHAPTER  VII 

FOWL-LIKE  BIRDS 78 

( Order — G  alii  formes. ) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CRANES,  RAILS,  AND  BUSTARDS       ....        93 
(Order — Grui  formes.) 


CHAPTER  IX 

PLOVERS,  GULLS,  AND  AUKS 101 

( Order — Charadriif  ormes. ) 


CHAPTER  X 

PIGEONS 124 

( Order — Columbae. ) 


CHAPTER  XI 

PARROTS  AND  CUCKOOS     .       .       .      %      .       .       133 
(Orders — Psittaci  and  Cuculi.) 


CHAPTER  XII 

ROLLERS,  MOTMOTS,  KINGFISHERS,  BEE-EATERS, 

HOOPOES,  AND  HORNBILLS    .       •       •       «       •       142 
( Order — Coraciae. ) 


CONTENTS  vii 


CHAPTER  XIII 

NIGHTJARS,  SWIFTS,  AND  HUMMING-BIRDS    .       .       148 
(Orders — Caprimulgi,  Cypseli.) 


CHAPTER  XIV 

OWLS 156 

( Order — Striges. ) 


CHAPTER  XV 

TROGONS,  TOUCANS,  AND  WOODPECKERS     .       .       164 
(Orders — Trogones  and  Pici.) 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PASSERINE  BIRDS 172 

(Order — Passer!  formes.) 


INDEX 


233 


LIST  OF  COLOUR  PLATES 

BALD  EAGLE  .       .       .       .       .      v  .        Frontispiece 

PLATE     i  .       .       .       .       .       .  Facing  page     74 

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98 

INTRODUCTION 

THE  study  of  birds,  or  Ornithology,  began  long 
before  the  dawn  of  civilisation.  At  first,  to 
primitive  man  the  bird  represented  only  a  kind 
of  food,  and  the  study  of  birds'  habits  and  peculiari- 
ties must  have  had  its  beginning  after  pursuit  had 
made  birds  wary  and  only  to  be  caught  by  some 
knowledge  of  their  character  and  haunts.  With  bet- 
ter knowledge  of  birds,  as  of  other  animals,  it  was 
found  that  some  species  might  be  kept  and  bred  in 
captivity,  thus  giving  a  regular  and  certain  kind  of 
food.  With  the  keeping  of  fowls,  of  dogs,  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses,  began  the  pastoral  or  shepherd 
stage  of  civilisation,  which  came  earliest  in  man's  up- 
ward progress  toward  a  settled  life.  All  the  complex 
communities  of  to-day  may  be  traced  back  to  such 
simple  beginnings,  and  the  domestication  of  animals 
was  by  no  means  a  small  factor  in  man's  progress. 
The  freedom  of  birds,  their  mastery  of  the  regions  of 
the  air,  their  mysterious  goings  and  comings — some, 
or  all,  of  these  gave  them  a  peculiar  fascination  and 
caused  them  from  the  earliest  times  to  be  regarded 
with  religious  awe  as  being  closely  allied  to  the  gods, 
or  with  superstitious  fear  and  reverence  as  partaking 
of  the  strange  powers  of  the  air,  No  doubt  they 
seemed  to  be  in  some  sense  dwellers  in  lands  of  the 

xi 


xii INTRODUCTION 

gods.  Whatever  the  reason,  birds  have  been  in  every 
land  connected  with  religious  observances  or  super- 
stitious rites,  and  even  chosen  as  symbols  of  power, 
authority,  or  wisdom.  No  doubt  their  expressive  cries 
contributed  much  to  this  result.  The  folk-lore  in 
every  nation  gives  evidence  of  this  feeling.  It  is  found 
among  the  Hindus,  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans,  and  the  European  nations  alike. 

But  the  scientific  study  of  birds  cannot  be  said  to 
have  begun  until  very  recent  times.  The  foundations 
of  ornithology  were  laid  by  two  Englishmen,  Francis 
Willughby  (1635-1672)  and  John  Ray  (1628-1705), 
to  whom  we  owe  the  first  attempts  to  classify  birds 
upon  right  principles.  Their  good  work  was  based 
upon  practical  observation  combined  with  the  ability 
to  rightly  weigh  and  analyse.  Though  to-day  other 
ideas  prevail  in  regard  to  the  relationship  and  classify- 
ing of  species,  yet  Willughby  and  Ray  are  still  re- 
garded as  pioneers  in  ornithology.  In  this  chapter 
our  purpose  is  to  give  a  brief  summary  of  the  state 
of  our  knowledge  of  birds  at  this  time,  rather  than 
to  trace  even  in  outline  the  progress  of  the  science 
during  the  last  two  or  three  centuries. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  question:  What  is  a  bird? 
Briefly,  a  bird  is  distinguished  from  all  other  living 
creatures  by  its  covering  of  feathers.  Not  thus  alone, 
however,  are  birds  distinguished,  since  they  differ 
almost  as  markedly  in  the  matter  of  their  skeletons. 
But  it  is  not  enough  that  we  should  be  able  to  quote 
the  "hall-mark,"  so  to  speak,  by  which  our  favorites 
are  to  be  recognised.  At  least  it  is  not  enough  for 
those  of  us  who  are  not  content  with  mere  facts. 


_  INTRODUCTION  _  xiii 

Thus,  then,  we  ask,  How  have  the  birds  come  by 
these  distinguishing  characters?  The  answer  to  this 
question  has  been  supplied  partly  by  the  anatomist 
and  partly  by  those  who  have  spent  their  lives  in  read- 
ing the  riddles  of  the  rocks.  Let  us  take  the  anato- 
mist's evidence  first.  According  to  him,  the  peculiari- 
ties which  distinguish  the  bird  have  been  derived  from 
reptiles,  and  this  is  nowhere  more  evident  than  in  the 
skull.  As  in  the  reptile,  it  joins  the  neck  by  a  single, 
rounded  boss  of  bone;  while  in  the  mammals  (the 
great  class  to  which  we  ourselves  belong,  the  class  dis- 
tinguished by  the  body  covering  of  hair,  and  the  fact 
that  the  young  are  suckled)  the  skull  joins  the  neck 
by  two  such  bosses.  In  the  form  of  the  backbone 
and  of  the  hip-girdle,  and  in  the  structure  of  the  legs, 
birds  also  agree  with  the  reptiles.  To  state  in  full 
the  evidence  on  which  these  conclusions  are  founded 


TiJBJff 


m 

FIG.  i. — BONES  OF  THE  FOOT  AND  ANKLE  OF  A  YOUNG  FOWL,  SHOW- 
ING THE  SEPARATE  ELEMENTS   THEREOF. 


xiv INTRODUCTION 

might  be  wearisome  to  those  who  are  not  particularly 
interested,  but  we  may  indicate  the  nature  of  the  argu- 
ment by  a  comparison  of  the  hind  limb  of  the  bird  and 
reptile.  This  limb,  in  both,  is  peculiar  in  that  the 
ankle-joint  is  formed  in  such  a  way  that  when  the 
foot  is  bent  the  joint  turns  on  a  hinge  formed  between 
two  rows  of  ankle-bones,  while  in  mammals  the 
joint  is  formed  by  the  hinging  of  the  shank  of  the 
leg  upon  the  uppermost  row  of  ankle-bones.  But  the 
bird's  leg  is  peculiar  in  that  these  two  rows  of  ankle- 
bones  have  undergone  great  modifications,  and  can  be 
seen  in  their  originally  separate  condition  only  by  ex- 
amining the  chick  some  time  before  hatching,  though 
traces  yet  remain  in  a  young  fowl  of,  say,  three  months 
old  (see  Fig.  1).  It  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  these 
peculiarities  are  not  generally  known,  that  most  books 
on  birds  are  inaccurate  when  they  describe  the  "legs 
and  toes"  of  a  bird,  the  legs  being  the  long  "cannon- 
bones,"  which  are  clad  in  scales  and  often  brightly 
coloured. 

A  reference  to  the  accompanying  diagram  should 
make  this  clear.  Here  we  have  the  leg  of  a  fowl. 
The  first  joint  is  formed  by  the  hinging  of  the  femur, 
or  thigh-bone,  with  the  tibia,  thus  forming  the  "knee- 
joint."  At  the  end  of  the  tibia  is  the  joint  with  the 
ankle-bone;  but  in  the  birds,  as  we  have  said,  the  two 
rows  which  these  small  bones  make  up  disappear  be- 
fore adult  life  is  reached.  One  row  (shown  in 
Fig.  1 ) ,  composed  in  the  half -grown  bird  of  a  mallet- 
like  piece,  the  handle  of  which  runs  up  the  front  of 
the  tibia  or  shank,  becomes  welded  to  the  "shank"; 
while  the  other  ("2nd  Row,"  Fig.  1),  composed  of 


INTRODUCTION 


xv 


**    


several  small  pieces  originally,  but  now  forming  a 
thin  plate,  becomes  welded  on  to  the  top  of  the  bones 
of  the  foot.  It  it  these  last  which  are  always,  but 
wrongly,  described  as  the  "leg-bones."  Really,  they 
answer  to  the  bones  of  our  own  feet  which  lie  be- 
tween the  ankle  and  the 
toes.  Finally,  we  have 
the  toes,  about  which 
there  can  be  no  mistake. 
The  great  lengthen- 
ing of  the  foot-bones 
has  been  brought  about 
by  the  evolution  of  the 
bird  from  a  climbing 
to  a  walking  animal. 
Originally  they  were 
five  in  number,  but  are 
now,  like  the  toes,  re- 
duced to  four.  Of 
these  four,  three  are 
now  welded  together— 
Nos.  I,  II,  III— to 
form  a  single  "cannon- 
bone,"  answering  to 
that  of  the  horse;  but 
in  the  young  bird  their 
originally  separate  con- 
dition can  still  be  traced 
( see  Fig.  1).  The  first 
of  these  foot-bones  answering  to  the  hind-toe  is  now 
reduced  to  a  mere  "button"  of  bone  slung  by  liga- 
ments on  to  the  cannon-bone."  The  leg  of  the  old 


FIG.  2. — DIAGRAM  OF  THE  LEG  OF 
AN  ADULT  BIRD,  SHOWING  THE 
CONDITION  OF  THE  LIMB  AFTER 
THE  SEPARATE  ELEMENTS  HAVE 
BECOME  WELDED. 


XVI 


INTRODUCTION 


giant  reptiles  known  as  the  Dinosaurs  corresponds 
marvellously  well  with  that  of  a  modern  bird,  only 
in  the  reptiles  the  foot-bones  had  not  become  welded 
to  form  a  cannon-bone.  So  much,  then,  for  the 
evidence  from  the  skeleton,  for  the  present. 
The  arrangement  of  the  blood-vessels,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  eye,  ear,  organ  of  smell,  and  brains,  are  all 
on  the  reptile  plan,  and  so  also  are  the  organs  of  re- 
production. Similarly,  the  microscopic  structure  of 
the  growing  feather  in  the  embryo,  or  unhatched  chick, 
shows  that  it  is  really  an  extremely  elaborate  reptile 
scale,  and  is  formed  on  a  plan  quite  different  from 
the  hairs  of  mammals. 

But,  it  may  be  urged,  it  is  all  very  well,  and  it  may 
be  quite  true,  to  say  that  because  the  reptiles  and  the 

birds  have  so  much 
in  common,  there- 
fore they  must  be 
related.  But  why 
should  we  assume 
this?  One  of  two 
courses  is  open  to 
u  s.  Either  w  e 
must  believe  that 
birds  were,  as  used 
to  be  held,  special- 
ly created,  or  that 
they  have  in- 
herited  the  char- 
acters which  they 
hold  in  common  with  reptiles  from  a  common  ancestor 
which  had  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  rep- 


FlG.    3. THE    FIRST    KNOWN    BIRD. 


INTRODUCTION xvii 

tiles  to-day.  And  in  support  of  the  reasonableness 
of  this  latter  view  we  may  appeal  to  the  evidence 
which  the  rocks  have  preserved  for  us  in  the  shape  of 
the  fossil  remains  of  ancestral  birds.  In  these  we 
have  still  further  and  more  striking  proof  of  the 
descent  of  birds  from  reptiles,  and  the  gradual  change 
from  the  reptile  to  the  bird  type. 

The  earliest  fossil  bird  yet  discovered  is  that  known 
as  Archseopteryx,  and  this  differed  from  all  other 
birds  in  one  or  two  very  important  particulars.  In 
each  case  these  differences  serve  to  bridge  the  gap  be- 
tween the  reptiles  and  the  birds,  though  it  must  be 
(admitted  many  other  links  are  necessary  to  make  the 
chain  complete.  In  the  first  place,  instead  of  the 
horny  sheaths  which  cover  the  beak  of  living  birds, 
we  find  the  jaws  were  provided  with  teeth,  set  in 
sockets  like  those  of  the  crocodile;  in  the  second,  the 
tail  was  of  great  length  and  made  up  of  a  long  row 
of  bones,  as  in  the  tail  of  reptiles.  Each  bone  sup- 
ported a  pair  of  feathers,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  illus- 
tration, so  that  in  this  respect  it  was  neither  like  that 
of  the  reptile  nor  of  the  typical  bird.  In  the  latter, 
the  tail  is  apparently  fashioned  after  a  very  different 
manner. 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  arrangement  of  the 
tail-feathers  in  a  bird,  we  find  that  they  are  set  fan- 
wise  about  a  plate  of  bone,  the  last  of  a  series  of  the 
eight  separate  tail-bones  which  form  the  termination 
of  the  backbone.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
what  is  commonly  called  the  "tail"  is  really  only  the 
outward  sign  of  this  appendage,  for  feathers,  alone, 


xviii INTRODUCTION 

no  more  make  the  tail  of  a  bird  than  hair  makes  the 
tail  of  a  dog.  Now  if  we  examine  this  bony  plate  in 
the  embryo,  say,  of  a  duck,  we  shall  find  that  it  is 
really  made  up  of  six  or  seven  separate  vertebrae, 
which  have  become,  as  it  were,  telescoped.  Each  of 
these  represents  one  of  the  feather-bearing  vertebra? 
in  the  tail  of  Archgeopteryx ;  but  by  the  process  of 
telescoping — this  process  of  shrinking — they  have 
brought  the  bases  of  the  feathers  they  supported  close 
together  in  the  fan- wise  shape  we  have  just  described. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  lesson  in  the  evolution  of 
birds — a  transformation  that  will  go  far  to  help  realise 
how  similar  changes  could  bring  about  the  evolution 
of  the  ancient  reptile  into  the  modern  bird.  Some 
day,  without  doubt,  a  yet  older  form  of  bird  will  be 
discovered,  which  will  show  even  more  reptilian  char- 
acters. 

Another  strong  proof  of  the  identity  of  the  two 
forms  in  origin  is  found  in  the  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  egg  into  the  chick.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  gradual  changes  which  may  be  studied  here  re- 
peat to  some  extent  the  history  of  the  species  from  the 
earliest  to  the  latest  form,  and  the  fact  that  the  early 
embryonic  development  of  birds  agrees  with  the  be- 
lief that  they  are  descended  from  the  same  ancestral 
form  as  the  reptiles,  is  supported  by  the  conclusion 
arrived  at  by  embryologists. 

Birds,  then,  in  the  possession  of  feathers,  are  unique 
in  the  scheme  of  nature;  so  that  by  this  character 
alone  they  are  distinguished  from  all  other  backboned 
animals.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  owe  their 
descent  to  some  reptilian  ancestor.  Let  us  now  pass 


INTRODUCTION xix 

on  to  consider  one  or  two  other  peculiarities  of  birds — 
peculiarities  which  have  gone  on  developing  and  per- 
fecting since  the  time  when  birds  branched  off  from 
the  reptile  stock. 

Surely  the  most  important  of  these  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fore-limb.  This  we  know  as  the  "wing."  When 
stripped  of  its  feathers,  we  could  trace  the  wing- 
structure  of  the  bird  in  the  fore-leg  of  any  other 
animal.  Yet  it  cannot  be  used  as  an  absolutely  dis- 
tinctive character,  since  in  some  of  the  Ostrich  tribe, 
for  example,  it  has  become  degenerate  and  so  reduced 
in  size  as  to  be  hardly  recognised;  while,  if  we  take 
fossil  forms  into  consideration,  we  shall  find  that  it 
becomes  still  more  dwarfed,  until,  as  in  the  Moas,  it 
is  lost  altogether. 

The  principal  features  in  which  the  wing  differs 
from  the  fore-limb  of  other  animals  are  found  in  the 
bones  of  the  "wrist"  and  "hand."  In  the  wrist  only 
two  separate  bones  appear,  though  in  the  embryo  the 
rudiments  of  several  can  be  made  out ;  these  disappear, 
however,  before  hatching.  The  bones  of  the  hand  and 
fingers  are  reduced  to  three  in  number — the  thumb 
and  first  and  second  fingers.  The  first  portion  of 
these  finger-bones,  which  answer  to  the  bones  that  ex- 
tend between  the  wrist  and  the  bases  of  the  fingers 
and  make  up  the  palms  of  our  hands,  are  firmly 
welded  together,  the  base  of  the  thumb  being  hardly 
traceable.  The  second  and  third  are  welded  together 
at  each  end,  enclosing  a  space,  while  the  finger- joints 
are  represented,  in  the  second  finger  by  two  or  some- 
times three  bones,  and  the  third  by  one  bone  only. 

The  remarkable  wrist  and  hand  have  reached  this 


xx INTRODUCTION     

unique  stage  of  development  as  a  response  to  the 
peculiar  need  of  the  bird's  flight,  the  hand  being 
drawn  out  into  a  long  rod,  across  which  the  bases  of 
the  quill-feathers  are  securely  lashed  by  ligaments. 
The  wing,  no  less  than  the  rest  of  the  skeleton,  fur- 
nishes convincing  evidence  to  show  that  the  bird,  as 
we  see  it  to-day,  has  acquired  this  form  by  a  slow 
transformation.  In  many  birds,  as  in  the  Duck,  the 
Water-hen,  or  any  of  the  Hawks,  there  will  be  found 
on  the  thumb  and  the  tip  of  the  second  finger  a  small 
claw — the  vestige  of  a  claw  that  once  was  useful.  In 
some  other  birds,  as  in  the  common  Fowl,  similar 
claws  will  be  found  in  the  embryo — in  the  chick  be- 
fore it  leaves  the  shell — though  quite  commonly  the 
thumb-claws  persist  throughout  life.  Examine  the 
wing  of  the  next  Fowl  you  come  across,  and  likely 
enough  you  will  find  it. 

Now,  if  we  go  back  to  Archseopteryx,  we  shall  find 
that  the  wing  possessed  a  large  claw  on  each  of  its 
three  fingers;  and  also,  in  this  ancient  bird  we  find 
that  the  second  row  of  wrist-bones — those  at  the  base 
of  the  fingers — though  welded  together  to  form  a  half- 
moon-shaped  bone,  yet  remained  distinct  from  the 
fingers.  They,  in  fact,  retained  throughout  life  the 
condition  which  is  met  with  to-day  only  in  very  young 
birds.  When  a  yet  more  ancient  bird  than  Archse- 
opteryx  is  discovered,  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  a  still 
more  complex  series  of  wrist-bones  will  be  found.  We 
expect,  indeed,  to  find  all  the  links  from  the  reptile 
to  the  bird  of  the  present  time. 

In  one  particular  the  bird  and  the  reptile  are  very 
different,  inasmuch  as  while  reptiles  are  cold-blooded, 


INTRODUCTION xxi 

birds  are  hot-blooded  creatures;  indeed,  their 
blood  is  much  warmer  than  that  of  mammals,  the 
temperature  ranging  from  100°  to  112°.  The  highest 
figure  is  attained  by  the  smaller  perching  birds,  such 
as  Finches;  Hawks  do  not  maintain  a  temperature 
above  109°,  and  Gulls  only  a  little  above  104°. 

This  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the  blood  is  due  to 
several  causes  too  technical  to  be  here  discussed.  But 
chief  among  them  is  the  fact  that  the  heart  of  the  bird, 
like  that  of  the  mammal,  is  a  four-chambered  heart, 
whereby  a  more  perfect  oxidation  of  the  blood  is  pos- 
sible than  is  the  case  with  reptiles,  in  which  the 
heart  has  but  three  chambers.  And  for  this  reason: 
When  passed  through  a  four-chambered  heart,  the 
impure  blood  brought  back  from  the  body  to  the  right 
side  of  the  heart  is  driven  through  the  lungs  to  be 
thoroughly  purified  by  the  air  drawn  in  during  breath- 
ing; it  is  then  received  by  the  left  side  of  the  heart, 
thence  to  be  sent  over  the  body  without  any  mingling;, 
of  the  two  streams.  In  the  reptile  this  mingling  takes 
place,  and  consequently  a  smaller  relative  quantity 
of  the  heat-giving  oxygen  is  brought  into  the  system. 
But,  strangely  enough,  the  blood  of  reptiles  and 
birds  agree  in  this,  that  the  little  red  bodies,  or  "cor- 
puscles," whose  duty  it  is  to  absorb  the  air  from  the 
lungs  and  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  have  each  a  central  "kernel,"  or  nucleus,  whereas 
the  blood-corpuscles  of  mammals  have  no  such  nu- 
cleus. 

To  expand  further  this  matter  of  the  temperature 
of  the  blood  a  somewhat  intimate  knowledge  of  physi- 
ology and  chemistry  would  be  required  in  the  reader. 


xxii INTRODUCTION 

It  is,  indeed,  a  question  for  the  physiologist,  rather 
than  for  the  ornithologist. 

It  may  seem  that  this  attempt  to  answer  the  ques- 
tion, "What  is  a  bird?"  has  taken  us  rather  far  afield. 
And  on  this  account  it  may  be  well  briefly  to  sum- 
marise the  facts  which  have  been  gleaned  on  the  jour- 
ney. 

In  few  words,  then,  a  bird  is  a  warm-blooded,  egg- 
laying  feathered  biped,  having  the  fore-limbs  modified 
to  form  wings,  and  the  hip-girdle  so  adapted  as  to 
bring  the  hind-limbs  far  forward,  to  balance  the  body 
in  walking  on  them  alone.  These  characters,  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt,  have  gradually  come  into 
being  by  the  slow  transformations  in  a  long  chain  of 
creatures,  which,  as  we  trace  them  back,  are  less  and 
less  bird-like,  and  more  and  more  like  reptiles. 
Though  many  links  in  this  chain  are  yet  missing,  some 
day  they  will  almost  surely  be  found. 

The  evidence  for  this  reptilian  descent  is  abundant. 
Every  bird,  in  the  course  of  its  growth  from  the  egg, 
passes  through  more  or  fewer  of  the  ancestral  stages ; 
and  while  some  of  these  carry  us  back  to  phases  of  de- 
velopment which  belong  to  ancient  types  of  birds  long 
since  extinct,  others  carry  us  yet  further,  and  show 
that  modern  birds  and  reptiles  have  descended  from  a 
common  stock. 

Feathers. — Though  feathers  are  so  common,  few 
realise  what  marvels  of  structural  beauty  they  are. 
Nor  is  the  peculiar  fashion  of  their  distribution  over 
the  body  even  now  generally  recognised.  Those  who 
have  spent  their  lives  in  the  study  of  living  birds  need 
not  be  told  that  the  feathers  of  a  bird  are  not,  as  a 


INTRODUCTION xxiii 

rule,  generally  or  evenly  distributed  over  the  body, 
after  the  fashion  of  hairs  on  a  dog,  for  instance,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  are  arranged  in  long  and  generally 
narrow  bands,  or  "tracts,"  separated  by  wide,  bare, 
or  sometimes  down-clad  spaces. 

The  fact  that  these  bands  vary  greatly  in  shape 
among  birds  was  first  realised  by  a  German  naturalist 
named  Nitzsch,  who  made  a  long  and  careful  study 
of  the  feather-tracts  of  birds.  As  a  result  of  his  pa- 
tient work,  he  was  able  to  show  that  the  variations  in 
this  arrangement  followed  certain  definite  lines,  each 
group  of  birds  possessing  a  type  peculiar  to  itself; 
and,  for  the  purposes  of  convenient  description,  he 
gave  these  tracts  distinctive  names,  which,  in  the  main, 
are  followed  to  this  day. 

Briefly,  as  a  result  of  his  work,  he  distinguished: 
(1)  a  head  tract,  formed  by  the  feathers  clothing  the 
head;  (2)  a  spinal  tract,  extending  from  the  head 
down  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  along  the  back  to  the 
tail ;  (3)  a  ventral  tract,  running  from  the  throat  down 
to  the  base  of  the  neck,  where  it  branches  at  the  shoul- 
ders, to  run  down  over  the  breast  and  abdomen  in  the 
form  of  two  bands,  a  broad  outer  and  a  narrow  inner 
band;  (4)  a  pair  of  humeral  tracts,  which,  crossing 
the  upper  arm,  form  the  feathers  known  as  the  scapu- 
lars; (5)  the  wing  tract,  including  the  quills  and  wing- 
coverts;  (6)  the  tail  tract;  (7)  the  femoral  tracts, 
which  run  across  the  thighs;  (8)  the  leg  tracts,  which 
cover  the  legs  below  the  knee. 

The  most  important  of  the  variations  which  these 
tracts  present  are  to  be  found  in  the  spinal  and  head 
tracts.  Thus,  in  the  first-named,  the  spinal  tract  in 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

the  Swifts  encloses  a  bare  space  over  the  middle  of 
the  back;  while  in  the  Swallows  it  divides  into  a  fork 
in  this  region,  leaving  the  hinder  portion  of  the  tract 
in  the  form  of  the  usual  straight  band.  In  the  Finch 
tribe  the  middle  region  of  this  tract  is  diamond- 
shaped.  The  head  tract,  again,  often  encloses  a 
space;  as,  for  example,  in  the  Humming-birds  and 
Mouse-birds  of  Africa.  The  ventral  tract  similarly 
presents  very  marked  differences  when  a  number  of 
different  kinds  of  birds  come  to  be  examined. 

Those  who  may  be  interested  in  this  question  should 
take,  say,  a  Sparrow,  Starling,  Thrush,  Pigeon,  and 
Fowl,  cut  off  the  feathers  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  close 
to  the  body,  and  compare  the  differences  between 
them.  Since  these  differences  are  constant,  and  since 
each  group  presents  a  type  of  its  own,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  "pterylosis,"  as  this  arrangement  of 
the  feathers  is  called,  affords  a  valuable  aid  to  the 
classification  of  birds.  For  example,  the  very  wide 
difference  in  the  pterylosis  of  the  Swifts  and  Swallows 
was  the  first  indication  of  the  fact  that  these  birds 
were  not  related,  as  they  had  always  been  supposed  to 
be,  and  later  anatomical  investigations  have  given 
further  proof  that  these  birds  belong  to  quite  different 
groups. 

In  the  Penguins  and  the  Ostriches  the  bare  spaces 
found  in  other  birds  are  hardly  traceable,  in  so  far  as 
the  trunk  is  concerned,  the  feathers  covering  almost 
every  inch  of  the  body. 

In  describing  the  external  appearance  of  a  bird 
these  tracts  are  commonly  ignored,  the  body  being 


INTRODUCTION 


XXV 


mapped  out  into  certain  areas  such  as  are  indicated 
in  Fig.  4. 

So  far  we  have  spoken  only  of  the  feathers  which 
form  the  outer  surface-covering  of  the  bird,  the  "con- 
tour" feathers,  as  they 
are  called  because  they 
form  the  contour  or  out- 
line of  the  body.  But 
besides  these  there  are  no 
less  than  three  other  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  feathers 
— d  own  feathers,  filo- 
plumes,  and  powder- 
down. 

Down  feathers  in 
many  birds  are  conspicu- 
ous by  their  absence, 
and  are  developed  most 
abundantly  in  water- 
birds,  such  as  Ducks,  for 
example,  growing  not 
only  between  the  feathers,  but  over  the  otherwise  bare 
spaces  as  well,  so  as  to  form  a  thick  undergrowth, 
answering  to  the  under- fur  of  seals,  for  instance. 

Filo-plumes  appear  to  be  present  in  all  birds.  They 
are  the  long,  hair-like  growths  so  conspicuous  in  the 
common  Fowl  when  plucked.  In  some  birds  they  at- 
tain such  a  length  as  to  extend  beyond  the  contour 
feathers,  forming,  as  in  some  Cormorants,  long,  white, 
delicate  plumes. 

The  powder-down  feathers  are  found  only  in  a  few 
groups,  such  as  the  Herons  and  Bitterns,  and  some 


FIG.  4. — DIAGRAM  OF  A  BIRD, 

SHOWING        THE       DIFFERENT 
AREAS   OF   THE   BODY. 


xxvi  INTRODUCTION 

Hawks  and  Parrots.  In  the  Herons  and  Bitterns 
they  form  large  patches,  a  pair  on  the  breast,  and  a 
patch  over  each  thigh.  Of  a  peculiar  woolly  appear- 
ance, they  are  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  they  break 
up,  when  touched,  into  a  fine  powder,  which,  when 
rubbed  between  the  fingers,  gives  an  indescribably 
smooth  feeling.  It  is  the  powder  from  these  remark- 
able feathers  which  gives  the  peculiar  bloom  to  the 
beak  of  many  parrots,  as  well  as  to  the  plumage.  As 
to  the  real  purpose  of  the  powder,  however,  we  know 
nothing. 

This  brief  survey  of  feathers  would  not  be  complete 
without  a  few  words  as  to  their  structural  characters. 
In  the  typical  feather  (say,  a  quill-feather) ,  two  main 
parts  are  to  be  distinguished — the  stiff  stem,  and  the 
broad,  flexible  blade  known  as  the  vane,  or  vexillum. 
The  stem  may  further  be  divided  into  the  quill,  or 
calamus,  the  hollow  part  below  the  vane,  and  the  shaft 
or  rhachis,  which  is  flattened  in  section  and  filled 
with  a  white  pith-like  substance.  The  vane  runs 
along  on  either  side  of  the  rhachis  in  the  form  of  a 
series  of  tapering,  flattened  rods,  the  "barbs."  They 
are  set  so  closely  together  that  they  must  be  carefully 
sought  for;  and  give  to  the  vane  that  finely  grooved 
appearance,  or,  rather,  the  appearance  of  a  series  of 
fine  lines  running  obliquely  outwards  from  the  shaft. 
If  an  attempt  be  made  to  pull  these  apart,  it  will  be 
found  that  considerable  force  must  be  used,  and 
this  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  locked  together 
by  a  second  series  of  flattened  rods,  known  as  barbules, 
so  small  as  to  require  the  microscope  to  reveal  them. 


INTRODUCTION xxvii 

But  the  mechanism  by  which  this  vane  is  held  together 
is  so  wonderful  that  it  must  be  explained. 

If  you  examine  the  blade  of  a  feather  with  a  mag- 
nifier, you  will  see  that  the  vane  is  made  up  of  small 
barbed  feathery  portions,  which  interlock  one  into 
another  so  as  to  be  flexible  without  separating.  In 
Fig.  5  a  portion  of  this  magnified  area  is  shown  as  it 
appears  when  seen  in  a  section  still  further  mag- 
nified. 

When  the  structure  of  a  feather  is  examined  under 
a  microscope  of  high  power  it  is  seen  that  the  barbs 
are  themselves  sub-divided  along  the  edges  into  a 
marvellously  constructed  system  of  branches  which  are 
most  wonderfully  shaped  so  as  to  hook  one  into  the 
other  and  to  support  one  another  under  the  great 
pressure  of  the  air  coming  upon  them  during  the 
motion  of  the  wing  in  flight.  Only  a  complicated  set 
of  diagrams  and  a  long  technical  description  could 
give  the  reader  any  adequate  idea  of  its  surprising 
mechanism.  We  can  say  here  only  that  it  is  of  almost 
unimaginable  delicacy  and  strength.  We  earnestly 
recommend  that  the  subject  be  studied  in  more  techni- 
cal books,  as  it  will  prove  most  fascinating. 

Thus,  then,  this  marvellous  interlocking  is  the  rea- 
son why  it  is  so  difficult  to  pull  the  barbs  of  a  feather 
apart.  In  the  vane  of  a  Crane's  quill,  in  a  piece  of  web 
15  inches  long,  no  less  than  650  of  these  barbs  were 
counted,  each  of  which  bore  about  600  pairs  of  bar- 
bules — that  is*  about  800,000  for  the  inner  web  alone, 
and  more  than  a  million  for  the  whole  feather:  and 
all  these  are  necessary  to  hold  the  vane  together. 

This  system  of  interlocking  is  most  perfect  in  the 


XXV111 


INTRODUCTION 


wing  and  tail  quills.  In  some  feathers,  such  as  have 
a  loose,  hairy  texture,  as  in  the  body  feathers  of  many 
birds,  these  booklets  are  but  feebly,  if  at  all,  developed. 
The  loose  feathers  of  the  Ostrich  tribe  also  lack  them, 
but  even  here  they  were  at  one  period  all  perfectly 


XX. 


FIG.  5. — SECTION  THROUGH  TWO  ROWS  PARALLEL  TO  THE  DISTAL 
RADII  OR  BARBULES.  D.RV  DISTAL  RADII;  P.RV  PROXIMAL  RADII 
OR  BARBULES. 

developed;  when  the  birds  ceased  to  fly,  the  feathers 
degenerated,  and  the  interlocking  was  lost. 

What  are  known  as  semi-plumous  feathers  are  im- 
perfectly developed  or  changed  feathers. 

Down  feathers  differ  considerably  from  "contour 
feathers"  in  structure,  having  little  or  no  shaft,  all  the 
barbs  arising  from  a  common  base.  These  barbs  are, 
further,  very  long,  and  have  only  very  minute  barb- 
ules.  In  the  Ducks  and  some  other  birds  these 
barbules  take  the  form  of  triangular  nodules;  while  in 
other  birds  again  they  are  knot-like. 

The  filo-plumes  have  a  long,  slender  shaft  with  a 
minute  vane  at  the  tip.  They  are,  apparently,  a  de- 
generate form  of  contour  feather,  judging  from  the 
fact  that  during  the  earlier  part  of  their  development 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

many  more  barbs  are  present  than  are  to  be  found  in 
the  fully  grown  filo-plume. 

Yet  another  form  of  feather  is  that  which  is  found 
fringing  the  mouths  of  birds  like  Flycatchers  and 
Nightjars.  Bristle-like,  there  will  yet  be  found  about 
the  bases  of  many  a  few  weak  barbs ;  the  eyelashes  of 
many  birds,  like  the  Ostrich,  the  Ground-Hornbill, 
and  some  other  birds,  are  similarly  fringed  with  these 
peculiar  bristle-like  feathers. 

The  down  which  covers  the  nestlings  of  many  birds, 
such  as  Fowls  and  Ducks,  answers  to  the  contour 
feathers  of  the  adult,  but  is  of  a  simpler  structure; 
indeed,  it  differs  in  character  among  different  species 
of  the  same  group.  In  its  most  completely  developed 
form  it  recalls  the  contour  feathers,  having  a  shaft 
and  barbs  with  weak  barbules,  but  these  last  have  no 
distinct  booklets,  hence  the  general  loose  character  of 
down  plumage ;  while  in  its  more  degenerate  form  the 
shaft  is  absent,  as  in  a  true  down  feather. 

Where  down  is  present  in  the  adult,  it  will  be  found 
in  the  nestling  just  before  the  feathers  begin  to  ap- 
pear. In  some  birds,  as  in  the  Ducks,  indeed,  and 
young  Hawks,  these  early  down-feathers,  or  "pre- 
plumula?,"  attain  so  large  a  size  that  they  eventually 
play  a  more  prominent  part  than  the  typical  nestling- 
down,  or  "pre-penna?,"  so-called  because  preceding  the 
pennse,  or  feathers.  In  young  Cormorants  the  nest- 
ling-down is  wholly  made  up  of  these  pre-plumulge, 
which  are  succeeded  later,  not  by  contour  feathers,  but 
by  down  feathers. 

Nestling-down  in  its  most  degenerate  form  may  be 
seen  in  young  Pigeons,  and  the  young  of  most  of  the 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION 


Song-birds;  while  in  others  it  is  altogether  wanting, 
as  in  young  Sparrows,  and  those  of  the  Crow  tribe. 

Only  in  the  nestling-down  of  the  Game-birds, 
Ducks,  and  the  Ostrich  tribe  is  there  found  a  forma- 
tion of  feathers  known  as  the  "after-shaft."  This,  by 
the  way,  is  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  adult  feathers 
of  the  Emu  and  Cassowary,  where  it  forms  a  sort  of 
duplicate  of  the  main-shaft,  equalling  it  in  size;  while 
among  the  higher  birds  it  is  never  very  large,  except 
in  the  Game-birds  (Fig.  6) ,  but  even  here  it  is  downy 
in  texture,  and  is  always  shorter  than  the  main- 
shaft. 

As  touching  the  growth  of  feathers,  but  little  can 
be  profitably  said  here.  The  earliest  traces  of  feathers 
must  be  sought  for  in  the  embryo,  where  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  the  coming  nestling-down  appear  in  the  form 
of  tiny  bead-like  bodies,  which  soon  sink  down  into  a 
pit.  Next  an  outer  pro- 
tecting sheath  is  devel- 
oped around  this  feather 
rudiment,  and  within 
this  the  mass  of  pulp 
which  it  contains  pro- 
ceeds to  form  first  the 
main  axis,  and  next  the 
barbs  and  barbules. 
What  will  prove  the  tip 
of  the  feather  is  the  first 
to  be  formed,  and  as  this 
forces  its  way  up,  the 
lower  parts  are  added,  till  at  hatching-time  the 
whole  of  the  down  feather  is  completed. 


FIG.  6. 


INTRODUCTION xxxi 

At  the  base  of  this  down  feather  lies  the  germ  of  the 
contour  feather  which  is  to  follow.  As  this  grows  the 
down  feather  is  thrust  out  upon  the  tip  of  the  new 
contour  feather,  and  here  it  may  be  attached  for  a 
very  considerable  time,  as  in  the  case  of  young 
Herons,  for  example.  On  its  first  appearance,  the 
new  feather  is  ensheathed  in  a  thin,  delicate  blue  wrap- 
per, the  first-formed  portion  of  the  vane  bursting  its 
way  through  while  the  lowermost  portion  of  the 
feather  is  yet  forming. 

Moulting. — In  most  birds  the  feathers  are  renewed 
annually,  by  the  process  known  as  moulting — a  criti- 
cal time  in  a  bird's  life.  When  there  is  a  lack  of  suit- 
able nourishment,  or  when  the  bird  is  low  in  vigour 
at  the  moulting-season,  the  feathers  become  curiously 
indented  with  fine  grooves  known  as  "hunger-marks." 

The  annual  moult  takes  place  generally  after  the 
breeding-season;  but  some  birds  moult  again  in 
spring,  when  a  new  and  more  resplendent  livery  is  put 
on,  as  in  the  case  of  many  of  the  Plover  tribe.  But 
the  quills  in  such  cases  are  not  renewed.  In  some  of 
the  Ducks,  as  in  the  drake  of  the  common  Wild  Duck, 
a  dull  livery,  resembling  that  of  his  mate,  is  assumed — 
the  so-called  "eclipse"  dress — during  the  month  of 
June,  and  this  is  worn  for  some  weeks.  By  the 
middle  of  August  the  new  and  characteristic  "breed- 
ing-dress" is  well  in  evidence,  and  by  October  is  com- 
pleted. This  "eclipse"  dress,  then,  answers  to  the 
dull  dress  put  on  after  the  breeding-season  by  the 
Plovers,  and  is  simply  moulted  again  in  a  month  or 
two  instead  of  being  worn  till  the  following  spring. 
Some  of  the  Game-birds  undergo  a  partial  "eclipse" 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

plumage,  but  this  change  is  confined  to  the  feathers 
of  the  head  and  neck. 

While  some  birds  put  on  a  new  and  brightly 
coloured  dress  in  spring,  others  brighten  up  their 
plumage  quite  as  conspicuously  by  simply  shedding 
the  tips  of  the  feathers  assumed  at  the  autumn  moult. 
No  better  instance  of  this  can  be  found  than  that  of 
the  Linnet,  which,  by  this  shedding  process,  gains  the 
beautiful  rich  brown  back,  and  rose-pink  breast,  that 
make  these  birds  so  much  prized.  For  some  as  yet 
unexplained  reason,  however,  captive  birds,  if  taken 
in  July,  before  the  autumn  moult,  develop  yellow  in 
the  place  of  red — which  colour  is  never  regained;  if 
taken  in  the  autumn,  the  red  breast  appears  in  the 
following  spring,  but  never  again.  The  beautiful 
plumage  of  the  Starling  is  similarly  attained  by  this 
method  of  shedding  the  outer  edges  of  the  feathers, 
and  the  Chaffinch  gains  its  blue  head  in  the  spring  by 
this  same  process. 

Whether  birds  can  gain  an  access  of  colour  to  the 
feathers  without  a  moult  is  still  a  disputed  point. 
Some  hold  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  mat- 
ter; while  others,  apparently  as  well  qualified  to  speak 
on  the  subject,  deny  the  possibility  of  such  a  change 
absolutely. 

That  the  colour  of  feathers  can  be  influenced  by 
feeding  is  a  fact  too  well  known  to  need  further  com- 
ment; but  it  may  be  interesting  to  remark  that  this 
fact  is  well  known  to  the  savage  people  of  Brazil,  who 
feed  a  species  of  green  Parrot  on  the  fat  of  Siluroid 
fishes ;  the  feathers,  as  a  consequence,  becoming  beau- 
tifully variegated  with  red  and  yellow.  Another  race 


INTRODUCTION xxxiJi 

of  South  Americans  change  the  colours  of  Parrots  by 
plucking  out  such  feathers  as  they  propose  shall  be 
altered,  and  inoculating  the  spot  from  which  the 
feather  was  taken  with  the  milky  juice  obtained  from 
certain  glands  of  a  small  toad.  The  new  feathers 
now  appear  of  a  brilliant  yellow  colour,  and  on  being 
plucked  out,  it  is  said,  grow  again  of  the  same  colour 
without  any  fresh  inoculation.  It  taxes  human  in- 
genuity to  account  for  savages  making  such  a  dis- 
covery. 

Beak  and  Feet. — Finally,  let  us  'consider  the 
covering  of  the  beak  and  feet.  The  jaws  of  a  bird, 
as  we  have  already  remarked,  no  longer  bear  teeth, 
but  are  ensheathed  in  horny  cases.  In  many  species, 
as  in  the  Petrels,  for  example,  the  beak-sheaths,  in- 
stead of  being  entire,  one  for  the  upper  and  one  for 
the  lower  jaw,  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  separate 
pieces;  while  in  the  Puffin,  and  one  of  the  Pelicans, 
ornamental  plates  are  developed  during  the  breeding- 
season  and  shed  immediately  after.  In  the  Pelican 
this  plate  is  square  in  shape,  and  borne  on  the  ridge 
of  the  beak  near  its  middle;  in  the  Puffin  it  is  tri- 
angular, and  is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  beak  at 
each  side. 

The  legs,  to  use  the  common  term,  as  a  rule  are 
covered,  as  in  the  reptile,  by  horny  scales;  but  in  some 
birds,  as  in  Grouse,  and  Sand-grouse,  and  the  Golden 
Eagle,  and  many  Owls,  the  shank  of  the  legs,  and 
often  the  toes  also,  are  covered  by  long  feathers  not 
unlike  long,  silky  hairs,  and  quite  different  in  char- 
acter from  the  quill-like  feathers  on  the  legs  of  the 


xxxiv INTRODUCTION 

domesticated  races  of  Pigeons  and  Fowls.  In  some 
birds  a  delicate  skin  takes  the  place  of  scales. 

The  claws  of  birds  vary  greatly  in  shape,  according 
to  whether  they  play  any  part  or  not  in  the  capture 
of  the  food.  Thus  they  may  attain  a  relatively  enor- 
mous size  in  Birds  of  Prey,  where  the  claw  of  the 
hind-toe  is  especially  large;  here  the  feet  are  used  to 
hold  living  prey  securely.  Some  species,  indeed,  as 
the  Goshawk,  for  instance,  kill  their  prey  by  means 
of  the  feet  and  claws.  In  the  Jacanas,  birds  of  the 
Plover  tribe,  the  claws  attain  an  enormous  length, 
forming  long,  pointed  rods,  which  with  their  tremen- 
dously long  toes  serve  to  enable  them  to  walk  on  the 
delicate  floating  weeds  of  the  rivers  which  these  birds 
haunt.  In  some  other  birds,  as  for  example  in  the 
Cassowary,  the  claws  may  be  used  as  a  weapon  of 
offence.  In  this  bird  the  inner  claw  is  of  great  size 
and  strength  and  is  capable  of  inflicting  a  very  dan- 
gerous wound. 

In  many  of  the  Grouse  tribe  the  claws  are  shed  each 
spring;  though  in  some,  as  in  the  Black  Grouse,  the 
shedding  is  confined  to  the  ragged  fringe  along  the 
inner  side  of  the  claws.  This  fringe,  by-the-bye,  re- 
calls the  fact  that  the  middle  claw  in  many  birds,  as 
the  Barn  Owl,  Nightjar,  and  Herons,  for  instance, 
has  a  curious  series  of  little  teeth  running  along  its 
outer  edge ;  but  so  far  no  one  has  been  able  to  tender 
any  suggestion  as  to  what  purpose  it  may  serve. 

Finally  we  must  find  space  for  a  brief  reference  to 
the  formidable  weapons  which  many  birds  possess  in 
the  shape  of  spurs.  These  are  generally  confined  to 
the  legs,  and  may  be  represented  by  a  pair  only,  as 


INTRODUCTION xxxv 

in  the  Game-cock,  or  by  several,  as  in  the  Peacock- 
pheasant.  But,  beside  these,  a  few  birds  have  a  simi- 
lar, and  equally  powerful,  armature  in  the  wings.  In 
some,  as  on  the  "Screamers"  (Palamedea  and 
Chauna) ,  two  spurs  are  developed,  one  at  each  end  of 
the  fused  metacarpal  bones — the  bones  which  form 
the  "palm"  of  the  hand;  in  all  other  birds  but  one  spur 
is  developed,  and  this  may  spring  from  one  of  the 
wrist-bones,  as  in  the  Spur-winged  Goose,  or  from 
the  base  of  the  thumb,  as  in  the  Jacanas. 

Flight  and  its  Mechanism. — While,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  feathers,  birds  are  unique  in  the  animal  king- 
dom, they  are  not  to  be  so  distinguished  in  the  matter 
of  flight,  for  many  creatures  even  far  below  them  in 
the  scale  of  life  have  this  most  enviable  form  of  loco- 
motion; while  the  Bats,  which  belong  to  man's  own 
class — the  Mammalia — on  the  other  side  of  the  scale, 
are  also  adepts  in  the  art.  In  the  manner  of  their 
flight,  at  any  rate,  the  birds  are  peculiar. 

In  the  study  of  "the  way  of  the  bird  in  the  air,"  it 
is  difficult  to  know  where  to  begin,  and  having  made 
a  beginning,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  tell  a  plain, 
straightforward  tale.  Though  birds  are  essentially 
flying  animals,  and  though  to  attain  this  power  they 
have  become  profoundly  modified  as  to  their  bodily 
shape,  they  have  yet,  in  some  respects,  not  gone  so 
far  as,  say,  the  Bats.  The  latter  have  almost  com- 
pletely sacrificed  the  power  of  walking,  while  birds 
have,  with  some  few  exceptions,  preserved  this.  Let 
us  come  to  closer  terms  with  our  subject  by  a  study 
of  the  bony  framework  of  the  body  in  its  relation  to 
flight. 


xxxvi INTRODUCTION 

The  whole  body  is  brought  into  harmony  with  the 
requirements  of  flying.  The  long  neck,  passing  in- 
sensibly into  the  body,  which  tapers  again  into  the 
tail;  and  the  beautifully  smooth,  rounded  surface 
formed  by  the  close-fitting  overlapping  feathers,  offer 
the  least  possible  resistance  to  the  air ;  while  the  large 
mass  of  the  breast-muscles  attached  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  body — which  during  flight  is,  as  it  were, 
slung  between  the  wings — contribute  toward  the  right 
ordering  of  that  all-important  matter,  balance.  In 
many  birds  special  means  have  been  adopted  to  secure 
extreme  rigidity,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  fact  that  the 
separate  vertebrae  of  the  back  have  become  welded 
together  to  form  a  stiff,  unyielding  beam.  But  it  is 
not  until  we  come  to  examine  the  bones  of  the  shoul- 
der-girdle and  sternum,  and  of  the  wings,  that  we  find 
the  modifications  of  the  skeleton  which  flight  has 
brought  about. 

By  the  shoulder-girdle  is  meant  those  bones  which 
make  up  the  shoulder-blade,  or  scapula;  the  long, 
straight  pillars  known  as  "coracoids,"  and  the  furcula, 
or  "merry-thought."  These  form  a  sort  of  cage  fixed 
on  to  the  front  of  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone.  This 
bears,  as  everybody  knows,  a  rough  resemblance  to 
the  hull  of  a  ship,  with  an  extremely  deep  keel.  A 
reference  to  the  figure  here  should  make  this  clear. 
The  deep  keel  and  the  broad,  flat  plate  of  the  breast- 
bone serve  for  the  attachment  of  the  breast-muscles, 
which  in  the  bird  are  of  enormous  size,  equalling  or 
exceeding  in  weight  all  other  muscles  of  the  body. 

These  muscles,  which  constitute  the  large  mass  of 
flesh  familiar  to  every  one  as  the  "breast-meat"  of  a 


INTRODUCTION xxxvii 

bird  as  served  at  table,  are  arranged  in  two  layers. 
The  outermost  runs  forward,  to  be  inserted  into  a 
shelf  of  bone  which  projects  from  the  upper  surface 
of  the  humerus,  or  upper  arm;  while  the  lower  runs 


FIG.  7. — TRUNK  OF  A  BIRD,  SHOWING  BONES  OF  SHOULDER  AND  HIP- 
GIRDLES. 

beneath  it,  along  the  coracoid,  and  finally  passing  into 
a  round  tendon,  runs  through  a  pulley  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  the  coracoid,  blade-bone,  and  merry- 
thought, and  into  the  head  of  the  humerus.  These 
two  muscles  play  the  most  important  part  in  raising 
the  body  and  keeping  it  in  motion,  for  these,  by  their 
contraction,  bring  about  the  downward  wing-beat. 
The  other  muscles  which  aid  in  this  work,  and  those 
which  raise  the  wings  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  need 
not  be  studied  here.  How  intimately  the  keel  is  as- 
sociated with  flight  may  be  seen  by  an  examination 
of  birds  which  fly  but  little.  In  them  the  keel  is 
always  shallow,  while  in  those  which  have  lost  the 
power  of  flight  altogether  it  is  reduced  to  a  mere  ridge 
of  bones,  as  in  the  Owl  Parrot  (Stringops),  or  has 
vanished  altogether,  as  in  the  flightless  Ostrich  tribe. 


XXXV111 


INTRODUCTION 


The  wing  itself  is  no  less  profoundly  modified,  as 
we  pointed  out  in  an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter. 
Suffice  it  to  say  here,  that  of  the  original  five  fingers 
but  three  remain.  Of  these  the  thumb  and  third 
finger  are  reduced,  and  little  more  than  stumps  ;  while 
the  second  finger  has  been  elongated  to  form  a  long, 
rigid  rod,  strengthened  at  the  base  by  that  portion  of 
the  third  finger  which  in  ourselves  contributes  to  form 
the  "palm"  of  the  hand.  In  the  bird's  palm  there 
are  but  two  bones,  forming  the  base  of  the  second  and 
third  fingers  respectively. 

The  bird's  wing  folds  in  a  peculiar  manner,  so  as  to 
form  a  more  or  less  Z-shaped  rod,  the  humerus,  or 


C.C 


FIG.  8. — WING  OF  A  BIRD,  SHOWING  THE 
FLIGHT  FEATHERS  AND  SOME  OF  THE 

COVERTS. 


the 


upper  arm,  form- 

ing  the  top  °f  the 
Z,  the  fore-arm  the 

downstroke,  and 
the  hand  the  base 
of  the  Z. 

When  extended, 
each  of  these  divi- 
sions or  segments, 
will  be  found  to 
support  a  series  of 
long,  broad  feath- 
ers. Those  on  the 
hand  are  known  as 
the  primaries,  and 
secondaries,  while 


those  on  the  fore-arm  as 
those  on  the  upper  arm  are  sometimes  described 
as  the  tertiaries.  These  last  form  a  double  se- 
ries, one  attached  to  the  upper  and  one  to  the  under 


INTRODUCTION xxxix 

surface  of  the  humerus,  or  upper  arm-bone,  and  their 
purpose  is  to  close  the  gap  which  would  otherwise  be 
left  between  the  wing  and  the  body  during  flight — a 
gap  which,  indeed,  would  make  flight  well-nigh,  if  not 
quite,  impossible  in  birds  which,  like  the  Albatross, 
have  a  long  humerus.  Above  the  "quill"  or  "flight" 
feathers — the  primaries  and  secondaries — will  be 
found  a  number  of  rows  of  smaller  feathers,  which 
can  be  divided  into  several  distinct  series.  These  are 
the  "coverts,"  and  are  known  respectively  as  the 
major,  median,  minor,  and  marginal  coverts.  Of  the 
first  and  second  series — the  major  and  median  coverts 
— there  is  but  a  single  series ;  while  the  minor  coverts 
and  marginal  coverts  number  several  rows  each. 
Some  of  these  smaller  coverts  have,  for  clearness's 
sake,  been  removed  in  the  accompanying  diagram. 
The  row  marked  t.  m.  is  formed  by  the  major  coverts, 
or  tectrices  majores. 

The  manner  in  which  the  feathers  of  the  wing  over- 
lap one  another  is  a  matter  of  some  importance  to 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  classifying 
birds,  and  in  the  mechanism  of  flight  is  even  more  im- 
portant. If  the  wing  of  any  bird  be  examined,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  free  edges  of  the  "quill"  feathers  and 
of  the  major  coverts  are  turned  outwards — ^towards 
the  tip  of  the  wing;  while  more  or  fewer  of  the  other 
coverts  have  the  free  edges  turned  towards  the  body. 
Consequently,  when  the  wing  is  raised  the  wind  forces 
its  way  easily  between  the  feathers,  and  so  offers  the 
least  possible  resistance  to  the  upstroke;  but  during 
the  downstroke  the  wing  affords  an  unyielding  sur- 
face, and  so  forces  the  body  upwards  and  forwards 


xl INTRODUCTION 

at  each  stroke.  Compared  with  the  Bat's  wing,  the 
wing  of  the  bird  is  a  vastly  superior  organ,  and  for 
this  reason :  The  wing  of  the  Bat  is  formed  by  a  mem- 
brane stretched  between  long,  slender  fingers,  so  that 
any  serious  injury  to  this  membrane  permanently  dis- 
ables the  creature.  The  bird's  wing,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  its  flying  membrane  formed  of  a  number  of 
overlapping,  elastic,  ribbon-like  structures — the  quills 
— which  are  periodically  renewed,  and  can  be  replaced 
if  injured. 

Organs  of  Digestion  and  Air-sacs. — Though  once 
upon  a  time  birds  had  teeth,  they  long  ago  solved  the 
problem  of  doing  without  them.  Like  the  Tortoise 
and  the  Turtle  among  the  reptiles,  birds  have  re- 
placed their  teeth  by  horny  sheaths  which  encase  the 
jaws,  and  these  sheaths  take  many  forms.  As  a  rule, 
that  of  the  upper  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the 
under  jaw;  but  in  many  birds  this  is  not  so.  In  the 
Birds  of  Prey,  for  example,  which  tear  their  food  in 
pieces,  the  sheath  of  the  upper  jaw  is  hook-shaped; 
and  this  is  true  also  of  the  Parrots.  Birds  which 
seize  rapidly  moving  and  slippery  prey,  such  as  fish, 
have  spear-shaped  beaks,  as  in  Herons  and  King- 
fishers; and  a  similar  weapon  is  developed  where  a 
rapid  succession  of  blows  is  rained  upon  hard,  unyield- 
ing surfaces,  as  in  the  beaks  of  Woodpeckers,  which, 
moreover,  have  the  density  of  the  horn  immensely  in- 
creased. On  the  other  hand,  these  sheaths  are  often 
of  great  delicacy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Snipe  and 
Woodcock,  the  fragile,  upturned  beak  of  the  Avocet, 
or  the  long,  rod-like  probe  of  many  Humming-birds. 

In  the  so-called  soft -billed  birds,  the  jaws  serve 


INTRODUCTION 


xli 


FIG.  P.-HEAD  OF  A  HAWK,  SHOWING 

THE   HOOK-SHAPED   BEAK    USED   FOR 

TEARING  PREY. 


merely  as  light  forceps,  and,  consequently,  they  and 
their  sheaths  offer  no  very  striking  characters;  while 
in  Swifts,  Swallows,  and  Nightjars  the  beak  has  be- 

come reduced  to  the 
smallest  possible  lim- 
its because  the  jaws 
perform  but  little 
work  in  seizing  the 
food.  When  slip- 
pery victims  have  to 
be  held,  such  as  fish, 
the  edges  of  these 
ho  sheaths  are 

J  ... 

armed  with  saw-like 
teeth,  as  in  the  Mer- 

gansers among  the  Ducks  ;  or  these  teeth  may  take  the 
form  of  needle-like  spines,  as  in  the  Darters.  In  the 
Ducks  and  certain  Petrels,  horny  plates,  resembling 
the  baleen-plates  of  "whalebone"  Whales,  are  devel- 
oped, and  these  serve  as  sieves,  or  strainers,  allowing 
the  water  taken  into  the  mouth  with  the  food  to  escape, 
leaving  the  solid  matter  behind. 

This  horn-encased  region  of  the  jaws  forms  the 
"beak,"  and  the  shape  of  this  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  bird's  food. 

From  the  mouth  the  food  is  passed  down  the  gullet, 
or  oesophagus,  until,  in  many  birds,  such  as  Pigeons 
and  Fowls,  it  reaches  a  special  dilatation  of  the  gullet 
known  as  the  "crop."  This  is  a  thin-walled  bag, 
wherein  the  food  is  stored  and  softened,  preparatory 
to  being  passed  on  to  the  stomach.  This,  in  birds, 
consists  of  two  parts,  one  lying  in  front  of  the  other. 


xlij INTRODUCTION 

The  first,  which  is  superficially  hardly  distinguishable 
from  the  gullet,  is  known  as  the  "proventriculus." 
Its  walls  are  richly  supplied  with  digestive  glands. 
From  this  first  stomach  the  food  passes  into  the  sec- 
ond, which,  in  birds  such  as  Fowls  and  Pigeons,  for 
example,  has  extremely  thick  and  muscular  walls, 
while  its  cavity  is  lined  with  a  more  or  less  dense  skin, 
thrown  into  a  series  of  folds.  A  stomach  of  this  kind 
is  known  as  a  "gizzard";  but  in  birds  which  feed  on 
animal  food,  such  as  Hawks  and  Gulls,  there  is  no 
gizzard,  the  walls  of  this  region  of  the  stomach  being 
thin  and  soft.  Where  a  true  gizzard  is  developed, 
sharp  stones  and  sand  are  swallowed  by  the  bird,  and 
these  are  stored  in  the  gizzard  to  aid  in  the  work  of 
grinding  up  the  grain  and  other  hard  matter,  which 
form  the  bird's  food.  Even  flesh-eating  birds  appear 
to  find  it  necessary  to  swallow  indigestible  matter  with 
their  food,  and  this  matter  is  furnished  by  the  hair 
and  feathers  of  their  victims.  Digestion  completed, 
the  indigestible  residue  becomes  welded  together  into 
a  mass,  and  is  ejected  from  the  mouth  in  the  form  of 
a  "pellet."  From  the  second  stomach  the  food  passes 
on  into  the  intestine,  and  here  all  the  nourishing  por- 
tions are  absorbed. 

The  air-sacs  are  found  in  all  birds.  They  take  the 
form  of  a  number  of  thin-walled  chambers  lying  on 
the  sides  of  the  body,  and  in  front  of  the  merry- 
thought. During  life  these  chambers  are  filled  with 
air  drawn  from  the  lungs.  They  are  really  a  part  of 
the  lungs;  but  their  precise  structure  need  not  be 
described  here.  At  one  time  it  was  thought  these 
great  air-chambers  served  the  purpose  of  decreasing 


INTRODUCTION xliii 

the  weight  of  the  bird  during  flight;  but  this  is  now 
known  to  be  an  incorrect  view.  They  serve  to  assist 
respiration,  and  also,  probably,  to  regulate  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body. 

Concerning  Eggs. — Birds,  like  their  cousins  the 
reptiles,  and  certain  low  forms  of  mammals,  lay  eggs. 
In  birds  these  are  always  invested  in  a  hard  shell, 
which  is  commonly  coloured,  often  very  beautifully. 
How  this  colouring  is  formed,  and  how  deposited  on 
the  shell,  we  do  not  yet  know,  or  at  least  only  in  part. 

The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  different  species  of 
birds  varies  greatly.  Thus  some  species  lay  but  one 
egg,  as  the  Guillemot;  some  two,  as  the  Pigeon. 
Plovers  lay  four,  Game-birds  from  twelve  to  twenty. 

When  first  formed  the  egg  of  a  bird  is  extremely 
small,  but  during  its  development  there  is  added  to 
the  germ,  which  is  to  grow  into  the  chick,  a  great  quan- 
tity of  yolk,  to  serve  as  food  for  the  developing  bird, 
and  outside  this  food-yolk  there  is  deposited  a  quan- 
tity of  "white"  of  egg,  and,  finally,  the  whole  mass 
is  enclosed  within  the  shell. 

Although  certain  stages  of  development  are  passed 
before  the  egg  is  laid,  this  development  is  soon  sus- 
pended, and  is  only  resumed  as  a  consequence  of  the 
heat  generated  by  the  body  of  the  brooding  bird. 

When  hatched,  the  young  birds  are  in  many  species 
extremely  active,  following  their  parents  and  finding 
food  for  themselves  soon  after  leaving  the  shell;  in 
other  species  the  young  leave  the  shell  in  a  singularly 
helpless  condition — blind  and  naked — and  these  have 
to  be  very  carefully  attended  by  the  parents  until  they 
are  strong  enough  to  fly  and  take  care  of  themselves. 


PUBLISHER'S  NOTE 

THE  color-plates  for  this  work  have  been  engraved 
after  designs  by  a  German  artist.  Since  they  were 
printed,  with  the  accompaniment  of  the  common  and 
scientific  names,  careful  verification  of  these  names 
has  been  made,  in  consultation  with  some  of  the  lead- 
ing zoological  authorities.  As  a  result,  the  attention 
of  the  reader  is  called  to  the  names  of  the  birds  men- 
tioned in  this  note.  This  list  contains  names  correct- 
ing typographical  errors  in  the  same  names  as  they 
appear  under  the  pictures  to  which  they  belong. 

Plate     2,  Fig.  5 :  Gypagus  papa. 

3,  "  12 :  European  Sparrow  Hawk. 

4,  "  17:  European  Red  Kite. 
8,      "  37:  Blue-fronted  Amazon. 

10,  48:  Chasm orhynchus  nudicollis. 

99      11,  "  54:  European  Blackbird. 

"      13,  "  71:  White-throat '  (Sylvia  cinerea). 

"      16,  "  92:  Pine  Grosbeak. 

"      17,  "  95:  Paradise  Whydah-bird. 

17,  96:  Sporceginthus  amandava. 

"      25,  "  145:  Red-legged  Rock  Partridge. 

xliv 


BIRDS  OF  THE  WORLD 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  OSTRICH-LIKE  BIRDS 

ORDERS  —  CASUARII,  STRUTHIONES, 
APTERYGES,  AND  CRYPTURI 

ALTHOUGH  lowest  in  the  matter  of  intelli- 
gence, the  Ostrich  tribe  are  among  the  most 
interesting  of  birds.     In  the  first  place,  they 
are  the  survivors  of  a  much  more  ancient  type,  extinct 
long  before  the  advent  of  man  upon  the  earth ;  and  in 
the   second,    they   have   undergone   most   profound 
changes  in  their  anatomical  structure. 

To  begin  with,  all  save  the  Tinamous  of  South 
America  have  absolutely  lost  the  power  of  flight,  and 
at  so  remote  a  period  that  the  great  keel  of  the  breast- 
bone, to  which  we  have  already  referred,  has  entirely 
disappeared.  But,  besides  this,  the  wings  have  de- 
generated to  an  extent  met  with  in  no  other  living 
birds;  and  this  is  true  also  of  the  feathers. 

The  first  member  of  this  Order  to  be  considered  is 
the  Emu,  of  Australia,  the  home  of  so  many  strange 
forms  of  animal  life.  Next  to  the  African  Ostrich, 
the  largest  of  living  birds,  the  Emu  has  little  to  dis- 
tinguish it  in  the  matter  of  beauty,  its  coarse-looking 

1 


BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 


plumage  being  dull-greyish  in  colour.  The  wings  are 
extremely  small,  and  can  be  found  only  by  diligent 
search  among  the  feathers  of  the  sides  of  the  body.  It 
is  a  singular- appearing  bird,  owing  to  the  long,  hair- 
like  feathers,  and  when  viewed  from  the  front  the  eye- 
lashes sticking  out  on  each  side  of  the  head  give  it  a 
very  fierce  expression. 

Two  species  of  Emu  are  generally  recognised,  both 
inhabitants  of  Australia  and  neighbouring  islands. 
The  bird  is  easily  acclimated  in  England,  and  is  quite 
common  in  many  of  the  parks  of  that  country,  where 
it  is  allowed  to  run  at  large.  It  breeds  remarkably 
well.  The  eggs  are  solidly  coloured,  a  deep  bluish- 
green  at  first,  which  gradually  changes  to  black.  The 
young  are  prettily  striped  little  creatures,  looking 
quite  unlike  the  parent  birds.  The  Emu  has  three 
toes,  and,  like  other  members  of  the  Ostrich  family,  is 
able  to  deliver  a  very  powerful  kick. 

The  sober-coloured  Emu  has  some  very  handsome 
relatives  in  the  Cassowaries  of  New  Guinea  and  the 
neighbouring  islands — though  one  species  occurs  on 
the  mainland  of  Australia.  But  little  is  known  about 
these  birds,  however,  in  the  wild  state.  When  first 
feathered  they  are  like  the  Emu  in  colour  of  plum- 
age, but  when  adult  life  is  fully  attained  they  have 
a  rich  shining  black  coat,  much  resembling  hair.  At 
maturity  they  shed  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck, 
the  bare  skin  then  assuming  the  most  brilliant  hues — 
combinations  of  blue,  green,  violet,  red  and  yellow,  ac- 
cording to  the  species.  From  the  crown  of  the  head 
there  arises  a  large  casque,  or  helmet,  which,  though 
it  looks  solid,  is  really  a  very  frail  structure,  consist- 


CASSOWARY  3 

ing  of  a  mass  of  delicate  lacework  of  bone  encased  in 
a  thin  sheath  of  horn. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  Cassowary  is  well 
seen  in  the  illustration.  The  curious  spikes  project- 
ing from  the  sides  of  the  body  are  all  that  remain  of 
wing- feathers,  while  the  wing  as  a  whole,  is  like  that  of 
the  Emu,  extremely  small  and  degenerate.  The 
"hand"  is  so  reduced  that  it  cannot  be  bent  back  at 
the  wrist,  as  in  birds  that  have  the  power  of  flight, 
and  the  thumb  is  quite  lost,  as  in  the  Emu.  The  only 
finger  that  is  left  is  provided  with  a  long  claw.  Casso- 
waries are  further  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  the 
inner  toe  bears  an  enormous  claw,  which  is  used  in 
fighting — forming  indeed  a  very  formidable  weapon. 
The  legs  are  short  and  thick.  The  sexes  are  coloured 
alike,  and  the  neck  is  adorned  with  brilliantly  coloured 
wattles,  or  excrescences.  Altogether,  fifteen  species 
of  Cassowaries  are  known,  one  of  which  almost  equals 
the  Emu  in  size,  standing  as  much  as  six  feet  in 
height.  See  Plate  28,  Fig.  159. 

The  Emu  and  the  Cassowary  differ  from  all  other 
birds  in  that  the  feathers  are  double — that  is  to  say, 
each  has  two  shafts,  of  equal  size. 

In  Australia  and  Tasmania  many  remains  of  gigan- 
tic fossil  birds  are  found,  related  to  the  Cassowary, 
one  of  which,  the  Moa,  stood  ten  or  twelve  feet  in 
height,  dwarfing  in  size  the  largest  Ostrich.  Remains 
of  these  birds  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation  have 
been  found.  A  fossilised  egg  of  the  Moa,  of  enor- 
mous size,  has  also  been  discovered.  Another  great 
bird,  ^pyornis,  closely  allied  to  the  Cassowary,  prob- 
ably lived  at  the  same  time  as  the  Moa,  and,  judging 


4  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

from  the  condition  of  the  fossil  remains,  these  birds 
must  have  existed  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
The  egg  of  ^pyornis  was  the  largest  ever  known, 
being  several  times  the  bulk  of  an  Ostrich  egg. 

The  Rhea,  or  South  American  Ostrich,  though 
smaller  than  either  the  Emu  or  Cassowary,  is  yet  a 
very  large  bird.  It  is  remarkable,  among  other 
things,  for  the  relatively  large  size  of  the  wings,  which 
are  extended  when  running  to  act  as  sails,  though  they 
are  far  too  feeble  to  raise  the  body  off  the  ground. 
The  loose  structure  of  the  feathers  of  this  bird  forms 
another  bar  to  flight.  The  sexes  are  nearly  alike  in 
colour,  both  being  a  light  purplish-grey,  and  there  is 
little  difference  in  the  plumage  of  the  young  and  the 
fully  adult  bird.  Like  its  relatives,  the  Emu  and 
the  Cassowary,  the  Rhea  has  three  toes,  all  placed 
at  the  front  of  the  foot.  As  in  the  case  of  the  former 
birds  also,  the  male  undertakes  the  duties  of  incuba- 
tion and  the  care  of  the  chicks.  Several  hens  combine 
and  lay  their  eggs  in  one  nest,  so  that  the  male  is  at 
last  left  to  brood  about  twenty  eggs.  These  are 
golden  yellow  in  colour,  in  contrast  to  the  eggs  of  the 
Emu  and  the  Cassowary,  which  are  a  beautiful  green. 
Some  specimens  of  this  bird  in  the  Zoological  Park, 
at  Washington,  had  the  curious  habit,  when  angry  or 
excited,  of  crouching  upon  the  ground  and  spreading 
out  their  wings  to  the  fullest  extent. 

The  natives  of  South  America  pursue  the  Rhea  on 
horseback  and  capture  it  by  hurling  the  bolas — stones 
fastened  to  the  ends  of  lines  which  are  hurled  by  the 
hunter  and  twine  around  the  legs  of  the  birds,  quickly 
bringing  them  to  the  ground.  See  Plate  28,  Fig.  158. 


159.  Helmeted  Cassowary 
(Casuarius  yaleatus). 


158.  Rhea 
(Ehea  americana) 


157.  Ostrich 
(Strut/tio  camelus). 


160    Kiwi  ( After yx  mnntelli). 


OSTRICH  5 


The  voices  of  all  the  Ostrich-like  birds  are  rather 
singular,  consisting  of  a  deep  booming  note  uttered 
with  the  mouth  apparently  closed,  and  seeming  to 
come  from  the  chest. 

The  African  Ostrich  is  the  giant  among  living 
birds,  the  male  standing  some  eight  feet  high,  and 
exceeding  the  female  in  size,  wherein  he  differs  from 
the  other  Ostrich-like  birds  so  far  described.  The 
African  Ostrich  is  also  unlike  all  his  relatives  in  that 
he  is  conspicuously  different  from  his  mate  in  coloura- 
tion, having  the  body  clothed  in  a  livery  of  glossy 
black,  relieved  by  the  pure  white  of  the  wing-  and  tail- 
feathers,  which  are  the  plumes  so  highly  prized  for 
millinery  purposes.  The  head  and  neck  are  almost 
bare  of  feathers,  while  the  massive  legs  are  absolutely 
naked.  The  plumage  of  the  female  is  of  a  sober 
brown  hue.  In  the  possession  of  a  tail  the  African 
Ostrich  is  also  peculiar  among  his  tribe.  As  in  the 
Rhea,  the  wings  are  of  relatively  large  size,  and, 
though  useless  for  flight,  they  are  of  much  assistance 
when  running,  being  made  to  serve  as  sails. 

The  Ostrich  stands  alone  among  birds  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  foot,  which  has  the  toes  reduced  to  two  in 
number;  and  of  these  one  is  so  small  as  to  play  but  a 
slight  part  in  supporting  the  body.  It  runs  with 
great  swiftness,  and  is  able  to  kick  with  terrible  effect. 

Like  the  Emu,  the  Ostrich  has  very  long  eyelashes, 
a  singular  character  and  one  not  often  found  in  birds. 
The  eyes  are  extremely  large  and  bright,  but  stupid 
in  expression,  and  indeed  the  bird  is  of  a  low  order  of 
intelligence.  The  Ostrich's  habit  of  swallowing  all 
sorts  of  indigestible  substances  is  well  known,  and  in 


6 BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  stomachs  of  dead  birds  have  been  found  such 
strange  objects  as  a  china  doll,  a  horn  comb,  pieces  of 
glass,  and  small  tools.  For  the  same  reason  our 
domestic  poultry  swallow  pebbles — in  order  to  grind 
their  food. 

The  Ostrich  further  differs  from  his  relatives  in  that 
both  sexes  share  the  work  of  incubation;  and  here  the 
difference  in  plumage  plays  an  important  part.  The 
female,  with  her  dull,  sandy-coloured  dress,  sits  by 
day,  so  that  she  is  practically  invisible  when  seen 
against  the  arid  wastes  chosen  for  the  nesting-site. 
The  male  sits  by  night,  when  his  dark  plumage  renders 
him  invisible  also.  Like  the  Rhea,  the  Ostrich  is 
polygamous,  and  several  hens  lay  their  eggs  together 
in  the  same  nest.  See  Plate  28,  Fig.  157. 

Though  four  distinct  species  of  Ostrich  are  recog- 
nised by  ornithologists,  they  do  not  differ  greatly  in 
appearance  one  from  another,  except  in  the  colour  of 
the  legs,  one  of  the  South  African  forms  having  skin 
of  a  reddish  hue,  while  the  species  found  in  Somali- 
land  has  dark  bluish-grey  thighs.  These  great  birds 
are  often  found  in  company  with  herds  of  antelopes 
and  zebras. 

In  all  the  Ostrich-like  birds  so  far  described,  the 
nestlings  are  striped  with  broad  bands  of  white  and 
black,  or  brown,  which  run  from  head  to  tail.  This 
striping  is,  however,  not  equally  well  marked  in  all 
the  species.  It  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  young  of 
the  Emu  and  of  the  Cassowary.  In  the  young  Ostrich 
the  neck  is  striped,  but  the  down  of  the  body  shows 
no  stripes,  these  being  obscured  by  the  tips  of  the 


KIWI 


down  feathers,  which  are  transformed  into  little,  horny 
curls,  resembling  dark,  narrow  shavings. 

Ostriches  are  now  raised  on  farms  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  The  largest  of  these  farms  are  in  South 
Africa,  but  in  recent  years  some  have  Been  started  in 
Arizona  and  California,  where  the  birds  thrive  well. 
The  feathers  are  clipped  regularly  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  the  birds,  which  are  blindfolded,  suffering 
no  injury  in  the  process  and  offering  no  resistance. 

Of  the  Apteryx,  or  Kiwi,  of  New  Zealand,  there 
are  several  species,  that  figured  being  known  as  Man- 
tell's  Apteryx.  All  agree  in  being  soberly  coloured, 
some  having  a  freckled  or  mottled  appearance  like 
that  of  Plymouth  Rock  Fowls.  The  legs  are  short 
and  stout,  and  the  bird  is  able  to  run  with  great  swift- 
ness, depending,  indeed,  upon  its  speed  for  safety, 
since  it  is  flightless.  It  can  also  deliver  a  strong  blow 
with  its  feet,  like  other  members  of  its  tribe.  The 
Apteryx  is  the  smallest  of  the  Old  World  Ostrich- 
like  birds,  not  exceeding  a  large  Domestic  Fowl  in 
size,  and  the  female  is  said  to  be  somewhat  larger  than 
the  male.  See  Plate  28,  Fig.  160. 

Nocturnal  in  habits,  the  eyes  of  the  Apteryx  are 
exceedingly  small;  but  deficient  sight  is  amply  com- 
pensated by  a  wonderfully  developed  sense  of  smell, 
in  which  it  is  believed  to  excel  all  other  birds.  Be- 
sides this,  the  region  of  the  face  in  front  of  the  eyes 
is  provided  with  long  hair-like  feathers,  which,  like 
the  "whiskers"  of  the  cat,  probably  serve  the  purpose 
of  feelers.  This  bird  is  also  remarkable  for  the  fact 
that  its  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  extreme  tip  of  its 


8 BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

beak — a  unique  character.  This  curious  position 
enables  the  bird  to  find  its  prey,  which  consists  of 
worms  and  grubs.  They  are  discovered  by  thrusting 
the  beak  down  into  the  soil  and  sniffing  for  the  odour 
of  the  desired  dainties. 

While  the  wings  of  the  Apteryx  are  reduced  to 
the  merest  vestiges,  yet,  as  in  the  case  of  its  relatives, 
a  large  claw  is  retained  on  the  tip  of  the  only  finger 
that  remains. 

Though  silent  by  day,  the  Apteryx  is  by  no  means 
so  by  night,  giving  forth  piercing  squeals  that  can 
be  heard  for  long  distances.  In  this  way,  doubtless, 
it  finds  its  mate.  The  list  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Apteryx  is  not  yet  exhausted;  for  it  is  remarkable  for 
its  enormously  large  egg,  only  one  of  which  is  laid 
in  a  season,  and  which,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  bird,  exceeds  all  other  eggs  in  bulk.  Within  a 
very  few  years  the  Apteryx  will  probably  be  as  ex- 
tinct as  the  Dodo,  owing  to  its  destruction  by  stoats 
and  weasels,  which  have,  most  unwisely,  been  intro- 
duced into  New  Zealand. 

Sometimes  placed  in  a  separate  Order,  but  often 
included  in  the  Ostrich-like  birds,  is  the  Tinamou, 
found  only  in  South  America.  Unlike  the  other  birds 
described  in  this  chapter,  the  Tinamou  has  a  keeled 
sternum,  but  in  very  many  other  characters  it  agrees 
with  them.  It  is  Partridge-like  in  form,  and  for  a 
long  time  was  classed  among  the  Game-birds,  whose 
place  it  takes  in  South  American  countries.  Sixty- 
five  species  of  Tinamou  are  recognised,  varying  con- 
siderably in  size.  The  head  is  small,  the  bill  rather 
long,  the  wings  short  and  rounded,  as  in  the  Quail 


TINAMOU  9 


and  Grouse,  the  tail-feathers  short.  In  colour  they 
are  inconspicuous,  usually  greyish-brown  above  and 
mottled  below.  The  nest  is  made  in  hollows  in  the 
ground,  the  eggs  vary  in  number  and  in  colour,  and 
arc  incubated  by  the  male.  The  eggs  are  remarkable 
for  their  very  high  polish,  looking  like  burnished 
metal,  or  porcelain.  Like  other  ground-birds,  Tina- 
mous  are  difficult  to  flush,  but  when  well  on  the  wing 
are  powerful  and  swift  flyers.  Mr.  W.  D.  Hudson 
says  "the  whir  of  their  wings  can  only  be  compared 
to  the  rattling  of  a  vehicle  driven  at  great  speed  over 
a  stony  road."  See  Plate  41,  Fig.  240. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  CABINATE  OR  KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS,,  AND  THEIR 
CHIEF  PECULIARITIES 

THE  birds  to  which  the  rest  of  this  volume  is  to 
be  devoted  all  differ  from  the  Ostrich  tribe,  not 
only  in  the  formation  of  the  skull,  but  also  in 
that  the  breast-bone  bears  a  deep  plate,  or  "keel," 
which  runs  down  the  middle  of  its  under  surface.     In 


\ 
E 

FlG.   10. THE  SHOULDER-GIRDLE  OF  A  CARINATE  BlRD 

TO  SHOW  THE  KEEL  OF  THE  BREAST-BONE,  THE 
LARGE  MERRY-THOUGHT  AND  SEPARATE  BLADE- 
BONE. 

addition  to  this,  the  bones  which  are  charged  with  the 
support  of  the  wings  are  different,  not  in  kind,  but 
in  degree.  With  the  loss  of  the  power  of  flight  which 

we  remarked  in  the  Ostrich  tribe,  these  "shoulder- 

10 


CARINATE  BIRDS 11 

girdle"  bones,  as  they  are  called,  degenerated.  As  a 
consequence,  the  blade-bone  became  immovably  fixed 
to  its  supporting  pillar,  the  "coracoid";  and  the  fur- 
cula,  or  "merry- thought,"  disappeared  altogether,  or 
left,  at  most,  but  slight  traces  of  its  former  existence 
in  the  Emus.  But  with  the  flying  birds  the  blade- 
bone  is  joined  to  the  coracoid  by  elastic  ligaments, 
and  the  furcula,  or  "merry-thought,"  is  well  devel- 
oped. 

There  are  certain  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however; 
and  these  occur  in  the  case  of  some  species  which  have, 
like  the  Ostriches,  lost  the  power  of  flight.  Herein  the 
keel  of  the  breast-bone  has  become  greatly  reduced, 
while  some  birds  which  yet  retain  the  power  of  flight 
have  either  a  very  imperfect  merrythought  or  none 
at  all. 

Flying-birds  further  differ  from  the  Ostrich  tribe 
in  that  their  feathers  are  more  perfectly  developed — 
they  only,  in  short,  possess  typical  feathers.  The  dis- 
tinctive characters  of  these  have  already  been  de- 
scribed in  the  introductory  chapter. 

Birds,  like  all  other  living  creatures,  compete  one 
with  another  for  food;  and  hence  a  given  area  of 
ground  can  support  only  a  limited  number  of  birds. 
All  above  the  number  which  can  find  support  in  this 
area  must  either  starve  or  seek  fresh  feeding-grounds, 
or  contrive  to  find  other  kinds  of  food  in  the  con- 
gested area.  And  it  is  this  struggle  to  live  which  has 
brought  about  the  marvellous  variety  in  the  forms  of 
birds.  For  as  new  kinds  of  food  and  new  methods 
of  feeding  were  adopted,  slow  changes  of  shape  in 
body,  beak,  wings,  and  feet  oame  about  through  the 


12  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

process  known  as  selection.  That  is  to  say,  birds 
which,  by  some  peculiarity  in  their  structure,  found 
themselves  able  to  capture  and  thrive  upon  the  flesh 
of  other  animals,  including  other  birds,  went  on  com- 
peting among  themselves  for  this  particular  kind  of 
food,  and  those  which  were  best  endowed — that  is  to 
say,  those  which  by  their  longer  wings  or  sharper  beak 
and  claws,  or  by  their  ability  to  swim  and  to  dive — 
gradually  crowded  out  their  less  fortunate  fellows. 
As  time  passed,  the  peculiar  characters  and  qualities 
which  originally  gained  for  them  superiority  over  their 
neighbours  went  on  increasing,  because  the  competi- 
tion continued,  being  rendered,  indeed,  the  more 
severe  because  carried  on  between  fewer  rivals — but 
rivals  almost  equally  well  fitted  for  the  struggle.  And 
thus,  in  course  of  time,  by  slow  degrees,  the  various 
forms  of  birds  have  come  to  be.  To-day,  as  a  result, 
we  find  such  differing  types  as  Diving-birds  and  Tree- 
climbers,  Hawks  and  long-legged  Waders,  and  so  on. 

These  different  kinds  of  birds  we  group  together 
in  assemblages  which  are  known  as  "Orders,"  and 
these  are  further  sub-divided  into  Sub-orders, 
Families,  and  Genera,  until  finally  we  come  to  the 
division  into  species.  In  this  way  we  can  sort  out  and 
bracket  together  all  kinds  of  birds  according  to  their 
relationship  one  to  another. 

While  some  Orders  are  made  up  of  birds  which 
have  retained  a  relatively  large  number  of  characters 
that  are  certainly  survivals  of  very  ancient  times,  and 
are  hence  said  to  be  primitive,  others  have  undergone 
great  changes  in  structure  and  show  many  signs  of 
descent  from  the  less  modified,  less  changed  forms,  and 


CARINATE  BIRDS  13 

these  are  accordingly  to  be  regarded  as  higher  in  the 
scale  of  evolution.  The  natural  order,  therefore,  is 
to  work  upwards  from  the  lowest,  or  more  primitive, 
types  to  the  highest,  or  latest  evolved  forms.  The 
lowest  of  all,  the  Ostrich  tribe,  have  already  been  con- 
sidered, and  we  proceed  now  to  a  brief  study  of  the 
higher  forms  of  bird  life. 


CHAPTER  III 

DIVING-BIRDS,  PETRELS,  AND  PENGUINS 

ORDERS— PYGOPODES,  TUBINARES, 
AND  IMPENNES 

The  birds  which  form  the  subject  of  this  chapter 
are  all  aquatic  in  their  habits,  and  feed  upon  fish. 

THE  DIVING  BIRDS 

THESE  are  divided  into  two  groups :  Sea  Divers, 
or  Loons,  and  Fresh-water  Divers,  or  Grebes. 
The  largest  of  the  Sea  Divers  is  the  Black- 
throated  Diver,  or  Loon.     This  bird  breeds  in  Ice- 
land, Greenland,  and  the  Fur  Countries  of  North 
America,  as  far  west  as  the  Great  Slave  Lake.     It 
lays  two  eggs,  olive-brown  in  colour,  spotted  with 
black,  any  convenient  place  on  the  ground  near  the 
water's  edge  serving  for  a  nest.     See  Plate  39,  Fig. 
231. 

Though  these  birds  are  commonly  called  Sea 
Divers,  they  show  great  preference  for  fresh  water, 
breeding  and  passing  the  summer  months  in  inland 
waters.  During  the  winter,  however,  they  retreat  to 
the  sea,  and  there  disperse  along  the  coast.  This 
migration  is  probably  due  to  the  necessity  of  keeping 
to  open  water,  for,  being  entirely  dependent  upon 
fish  for  their  subsistence,  severe  frosts  immediately  cut 

14 


LOON  15 


off  the  supply  of  fresh-water  fishes  in  their  chosen 
haunts. 

The  Loon  is  so  called  on  account  of  the  strange  cry 
it  utters,  suggesting  the  laugh  of  a  maniac;  at  other 
times  its  voice  has  a  piping,  resonant  sound.  When 
swimming  under  water,  the  wings  are  not  used,  the 
Loon  depending  for  progression  entirely  upon  the 
strokes  of  the  feet — in  which  it  differs  from  the  Pen- 
guins, to  be  described  later. 

The  adult  male  is  very  beautiful  in  summer  plum- 
age. The  head  and  upper  part  of  the  body  are  a  deep 
greenish-black,  velvety  in  texture,  and  the  breast  is 
silvery  white.  Over  the  back  and  around  the  neck  are 
numerous  spots  and  lines  of  pure  white,  giving  much 
the  effect  of  lace  over  the  dark  green ;  the  eye  is  a  deep 
blood-red. 

An  individual  of  the  Common  Loon,  caught  in  a 
fish-trap  off  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  was  kept  for 
some  months  in  a  pool  belonging  to  the  Fish  Com- 
mission Station  at  Woods  Hole.  Extremely  shy  at 
first,  for  several  days  it  would  come  to  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  intervals,  remaining  only  long  enough 
to  breathe  before  diving  again.  Within  a  week,  how- 
ever, this  Loon  became  ridiculously  tame,  and  would 
allow  itself  to  be  lifted  from  the  water  with  as  little 
resistance  as  a  wooden  decoy.  Although  the  pool  was 
more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  length,  there  was  not 
sufficient  distance  for  the  bird  to  rise  in  the  air  and 
fly  over  the  low  stone  wall  surrounding  it,  since  these 
birds  require  a  long  "start"  in  order  to  get  on  the 
wing.  Once  fairly  launched,  however,  they  are 
powerful  and  swift  flyers;  but  on  land  they  are  ex- 


16  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

tremely  awkward,  owing  to  the  position  of  the  legs 
at  the  back  of  the  body.  The  Loon  referred  to  was 
supplied  with  living  fish  from  the  aquariums  at  the 
Station,  and  it  was  most  interesting  to  watch  it  pur- 
suing them  under  water.  It  would  catch  the  smallest 
fry  with  remarkable  quickness  and  dexterity,  never 
seeming  to  miss  one  of  its  finny  prey.  When  given 
a  fish  too  large  to  swallow  with  ease,  the  Loon  would 
pound  and  thresh  it  about,  gradually  softening  it  until 
in  condition  to  be  devoured.  The  amount  of  food 
required  by  this  captive  bird  was  extraordinary ;  after 
despatching  twenty-five  or  thirty  minnows  in  quick 
succession,  after  a  very  short  interval  it  would  be 
ready  for  as  many  more. 

The  Red-throated  Loon  is  a  smaller  species  hav- 
ing much  the  same  range,  breeding  in  the  far  north 
and  migrating  southward  in  winter. 

Fresh- water  Divers,  or  Grebes,  are  found  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world,  although  they  are  most  com- 
mon in  temperate  regions.  While  the  Sea  Divers 
have  fully  webbed  feet,  the  Grebes  simply  have  the 
toes  provided  with  broad  lobes.  But  both  Grebes  and 
Divers  are  experts  at  swimming  under  water.  So. 
completely  have  the  Sea  Divers  become  modified  by 
this  mode  of  life,  that  the  legs  have  become  shifted 
to  the  extreme  hinder  end  of  the  body,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, they  cannot  walk.  The  Grebes,  however, 
can  do  so,  although  awkwardly. 

Two  species  of  Grebe  are  figured  here,  the 
Great  Crested  Grebe  and  the  Little  Grebe,  or 
Dabchick.  The  former  is  a  very  handsome  bird, 
and  was  at  one  time  much  hunted  for  the  sake 


39. 


227.  European  Least  Tern 
(Sterna  minuta). 


228.  Black- 
headed  Gull 
(Larus  ridibundtt*}. 


Sandwich  Tern        (Sterna  sandvicencis). 


231.  Black-throated  Loon 
(Oavia  arctica).  \ 


230.  Common  Tern 
(Sterna  hinmdo). 


232.  Crested  Grebe 
(Colymbus  cristatus). 


(.Fratercuia  arctica). 


DABCHICK— PIED-BILLED  GREBE  17 

of  its  breast  feathers,  which  were  made  up  into 
muffs  and  other  ornamental  articles  of  dress.  This 
bird  is  remarkable  for  the  wonderful  frill  which 
surrounds  the  head.  This  is  a  rich  dark  chestnut  in 
colour,  shading  at  the  edges  into  a  very  dark  brown, 
and  can  be  raised  or  depressed.  In  addition,  long 
"horns,"  or  tufts  of  feathers,  spring  from  the  crown 
of  the  head.  The  sexes  are  similarly  adorned,  but  in 
the  males  these  ornaments  are  more  developed  than 
in  the  females.  A  curious  thing  about  the  Grebes  is 
the  fact  that  they  build  floating  nests  of  weeds,  some- 
times attaching  them  to  rushes  and  reeds  growing  in 
the  water.  The  eggs  vary  in  number  from  three  to 
six,  and  are  white  at  first,  but  gradually  change  to 
brown.  See  Plate  39,  Fig.  232. 

The  Dabchick,  or  Little  Grebe,  is  a  much  smaller 
bird,  which  in  summer  has  the  cheeks,  throat,  and 
sides  of  the  neck  a  rich  chestnut  colour,  giving  place 
to  a  silvery  white  in  winter.  It  ranges  over  Europe, 
Africa,  and  Asia,  extending  from  the  Malay  coun- 
tries into  North  Australia.  See  Plate  40,  Fig. 
237. 

Two  species  common  in  America  and  frequently 
confused  are  the  Horned  Grebe  and  the  Pied-billed 
Grebe.  The  former  is  distinguished  by  large  tufts  of 
feathers  which  stand  out  on  each  side  of  the  head.  It  is 
seen  along  our  coasts  during  the  spring  and  fall 
months  but  is  not  so  common  as  the  other  species 
mentioned.  The  breast  is  glistening  white,  and  in 
flight  the  white  patch  on  the  wings  is  a  conspicuous 
mark.  This  bird  winters  throughout  the  United 
States,  breeding  northward. 


18  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  Pied-billed  Grebe,  commonly  called  Hell-diver, 
has  also  a  very  extensive  range,  being  found  at  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year  in  both  North  and  South 
America.  It  swims  and  dives  with  the  greatest  ease, 
often  swimming  under  water  with  only  the  tip  of  the 
bill  exposed.  In  summer  this  bird  is  dark  greyish- 
brown  above,  lighter  below,  and  has  a  black  band 
across  the  bill.  In  the  fall  the  upper  parts  are  darker, 
the  breast  and  sides  are  brown,  and  the  rest  of  the 
under  parts  silver-white. 

PETRELS,  OR  TUBE-NOSED  BIRDS. 

The  Petrels  are  strictly  sea-birds,  having  webbed 
feet,  and  all  are  peculiar  in  that  the  nostrils  open, 
either  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  tubes,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  beak,  or  into  a  cavity  on  the  top  of  the  beak: 
hence  the  name,  "tube-nosed"  birds.  The  wings  of 
the  Petrels  are  long  and  pointed,  and  their  powers  of 
flight  are  remarkable.  They  practically  live  at  sea, 
seldom  coming  to  land  except  during  the  breeding 
time. 

Of  the  many  different  kinds  of  Petrels,  three  species 
are  figured ;  and  of  these  by  far  the  most  interesting 
is  the  Albatross,  one  of  the  largest  birds  that  fly.  The 
Black-browed  Albatross  is  found  in  Europe  and 
Western  America,  though  its  real  home  is  in  the 
southern  oceans.  Albatrosses  commonly  breed  in 
large  colonies.  In  the  island  of  Laysan,  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  thousands  of  these  birds  can  be 
seen,  each  brooding  its  single  white  egg.  The  nest- 
ling is  covered  with  white  down  of  extraordinary 
length,  and  it  is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of 


ALBATROSSES  19 

time  it  remains  in  the  nest.  The  wings  of  the  Alba- 
tross spread  as  much  as  ten  feet,  but  though  so  long, 
they  are  very  narrow,  not  more  than  a  foot  in  widtli 
at  the  widest  point.  In  rising  from  the  water  it  has 
some  difficulty  in  getting  under  way,  but  once  on  the 
wing  the  flight  is  unexcelled  by  that  of  any  other  bird. 
These  birds  often  follow  ships  at  sea  for  days  at  a 
time,  and  there  is  a  superstition  among  sailors  that  it 
is  bad  luck  to  shoot  or  otherwise  injure  one  of  them. 
This  sentiment  has  been  made  use  of  by  Coleridge  in 
his  "Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,"  in  which  he  tells 
of  the  sufferings  of  a  ship's  crew  after  the  shooting  of 
one  of  these  birds.  See  Plate  38,  Fig.  221. 

Albatrosses  are  very  plentiful  in  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  A  writer  who  has  studied  them  there 
says  they  behave  very  strangely  at  the  mating  season. 
Standing  face  to  face,  they  begin  nodding  and  bow- 
ing vigorously,  and  then  rub  their  bills  together  with 
a  whistling  cry.  After  this  they  begin  shaking  their 
heads  and  snapping  their  bills  with  marvellous  rapid- 
ity, occasionally  lifting  one  wing,  straightening  them- 
selves out,  and  blowing  out  their  breasts.  Then  they 
put  their  bill  under  their  wings  or  toss  it  in  the  air, 
with  a  groaning  scream,  and  walk  round  each  other, 
often  for  fifteen  minutes  at  a  time. 

The  largest  and  perhaps  best  known  species  is  the 
Wandering  Albatross.  Its  plumage  is,  in  general, 
white,  with  some  black  markings,  the  feet  are  pinkish, 
and  the  bill  is  yellow.  Another  well-defined,  much 
smaller  species  is  the  Sooty  Albatross,  so  called  from 
its  very  dark  colour. 


20  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

While  the  food  of  these  birds  consists  chiefly  of  liv- 
ing fish,  they  also  act  as  scavengers  on  the  ocean. 

The  Manx  Shearwater  may  be  regarded  as  a 
typical  Petrel.  This  bird  breeds  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  Hebrides,  though  in  some  of  the 
islands,  curiously  enough,  it  has  been  ousted  by  the 
Puffins,  a  much  smaller  but  very  pugnacious  bird. 
About  a  hundred  years  ago  the  Puffins  began  to  in- 
crease rapidly,  and  drove  the  Shearwaters  from  the 
holes  which  they  occupied  in  the  cliffs,  so  that  now 
comparatively  few  remain.  The  young  of  this  bird 
remain  in  the  nest-burrow  until  long  after  they  are 
fully  fledged,  becoming,  in  consequence,  enormously 
fat.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  215. 

Leach's  Fork-tailed  Petrel  is  met  with  quite  com- 
monly in  both  American  and  European  w||fers,  hav- 
ing quite  an  extensive  range  in  Atlantic  anifl  Pacific 
waters.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  214.  | 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  Petrels  is 
the  little  Stormy  Petrel,  known  to  sailors  as  "Mother 
Carey's  Chicken,"  whose  appearance  is  supposed  to 
indicate  a  coming  storm.  Against  the  vast  bulk  of 
the  ocean  it  looks  extremely  small,  seen  through  the 
driving  spray.  Although,  like  the  other  members  of 
this  family,  the  Stormy  Petrel  spends  most  of  its  time 
on  the  ocean,  it  nests  in  holes  in  the  ground.  Many  of 
them  are  to  be  seen  during  the  breeding  season  at  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  on  the  Perce  Rocks. 

As  a  rule,  Petrels  are  dark-coloured  above,  and 
lighter  below;  but  one  species,  the  beautiful  Snow 
Petrel  of  the  icy  regions  of  the  Antartic,  is  all  pure 


40. 


234.   Great  King  Penguin 
(Apttnodytes  patagonica). 


235.  Little  Penguin 
(Aptenodytes  porous). 


231.  Little  Grebe 
(Colymbus  flwoiatifa). 


238. 
Brunnich's 

Murre 
(Uria  lomvia) 


236. 

Dovekie 
(Alle  atte). 


239.  Razor-billed  Auk 
(Atca  torda). 


PENGUINS  21 


white ;  and  the  Great,  or  Giant  Petrel,  when  it  wanders 
to  the  far  south,  also  becomes  white. 

Petrels  were  supposed  by  the  older  naturalists  to  be 
nearly  related  to  the  Seagulls,  which  they  closely  re- 
semble. But  the  resemblance  may  be  purely  super- 
ficial, and  due  to  their  similar  modes  of  life. 

PENGUINS 

The  Penguins  are  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  the  carinate  birds.  No  other  family  has  become  so 
profoundly  modified  and  adapted  for  an  aquatic  life. 
Though  the  bird-like  shape  is  retained,  the  wings  have 
become  transformed  into  paddles,  resembling  those  of 
whales,  and  with  these  paddles  Penguins  propel  them- 
selves through  the  water  after  the  fashion  of  a  bird 
flying  through  the  air.  When  on  land  Penguins 
stand  almost  perfectly  erect,  with  their  wings,  or  flip- 
pers, hanging  at  their  sides,  in  an  attitude  unlike  that 
taken  by  any  other  bird.  When  seen  in  this  position 
and  from  a  distance  they  look  not  unlike  a  band  of 
small  men,  as  they  waddle  along  in  single  file  across 
the  ice.  In  captivity  they  seldom  live  long,  but  are 
very  intelligent,  soon  learning  to  recognise  their  keep- 
ers. Their  food  consists  exclusively  of  fish. 

These  birds  are  confined  absolutely  to  the  southern 
hemisphere.  In  size  they  vary  enormously,  the 
largest  species  being  represented  by  the  King  Penguin 
and  the  Emperor  Penguin,  which  stand  about  four 
feet  high;  while  the  smallest  is  the  Little  Penguin  of 
New  Zealand,  no  larger  than  a  small  Duck.  See 
Plate  40,  Fig.  235. 


22  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  King  and  Emperor  Penguins  are  found  only 
in  the  inhospitable  regions  of  the  Antarctic,  a  land  of 
perpetual  ice  and  snow.  They  lay  but  one  egg  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  this  is  most  carefully  guarded.  To 
protect  it  from  the  cold,  it  is  placed  as  soon  as  laid, 
upon  the  back  of  the  feet  and  covered  by  the  feathers 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  brooded  by 
each  parent  in  turn  until  hatched,  when  the  young 
bird  is  cared  for  in  the  same  way.  The  young  of  these 
two  species  are  very  unlike,  the  young  King  Penguin 
being  covered  with  long,  hair-like,  tawny-coloured 
down,  while  the  young  Emperor  is  clad  in  down  that 
is  pure  white  except  for  black  markings  on  the  head. 
Certain  other  species  of  Penguins  build  nests  either 
on  the  open  ground  or  under  ledges  of  rock. 

Owing  to  the  complete  transformation  of  their 
wings  into  flippers,  Penguins  are  quite  unable  to  fly. 
They  are  also  unable  to  breathe  through  their  nostrils, 
these  having  become  completely  closed. 

Penguins  have  no  very  near  relatives  among  living 
birds,  but  they  stand  nearest  to  the  Diving-birds, 
which,  however,  they  far  surpass,  both  in  their  ability 
to  walk  when  on  land,  and  in  their  wonderful  swim- 
ming and  diving  powers.  Fossilised  forms  of  Pen- 
guins have  been  found  in  New  Zealand,  one  exceeding 
in  height  an  average  man.  See  Plate  40,  Fig.  234. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  TOTIPALMATE  BIRDS  :  HERONS,  STORKS,  AND 
FLAMINGOES 

ORDERS— STEGANOPODES,  ARDE^B,  CI- 
CONLE,  AND  PHCENICOPTERI 

THE  birds  which  form  the  subject  of  this  chapter 
comprise  a  number  of  distinct  groups  which,  at 
first  sight,  seem  to  have  little  in  common,  for, 
in  the  first  place,  while  some  are  web-footed,  others 
are  not.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  a  study  of 
their  anatomy  shows  that  they  are  all  closely  related. 

THE  TOTIPALMATE  BIRDS 
The  birds  which  are  known  as  the  Totipalmate,  or 

Steganopodous,  birds  were  grouped  together  by  the 

older  naturalists 
because  they  dif- 
f  e  r  e  d  from  all 
other  web  -  footed 
birds  in  that  all 
the  four  toes  are 
united  by  a  contin- 
uous web,  whereas 
in  the  other  web- 
footed  birds  the 

FIG.    IT.— FOOT    OF    A    CORMORANT,    TO     hind-toe,  when 

SHOW    THE    TOTIPALMATE    CONDITION ,  .  /> 

ALL   FOUR   TOES    UNITED    IN    A    COMMON       P^Sent,        IS  36. 

WEB.  The   labours    o  f 


24  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

later  workers  have  shown  that  this  association  was 
justified. 

The  best  known  of  these  Totipalmate  birds  are  the 
Cormorants  and  Gannets. 

The  Common  Cormorant  is  a  bird  which  enjoys 
a  very  wide  distribution  over  the  earth's  surface,  being 
common  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  in  America  along 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  It  is  a  rather 
large  bird,  being  about  three  feet  long,  of  a  wonderful 
dark-green  colour,  and  having  emerald-green  eyes. 
The  neck  is  long,  the  bill  heavy  and  furnished  with  a 
very  sharp  recurved  hook,  useful  in  seizing  fish.  The 
feathers  of  this  bird  are  velvety  and  scale-like  in  ap- 
pearance, very  thick,  and  they  lie  close  to  the  body. 
Although  such  an  expert  swimmer  and  diver,  the  Cor- 
morant is  also  strong  in  flight,  once  well  on  the  wing, 
and  in  Florida  numbers  of  them  are  seen  soaring  high 
in  the  air,  or  flying  in  a  straight  line  like  that  taken 
by  Wild  Ducks.  The  feathers  of  the  Cormorant,  like 
those  of  the  Snake-bird  (hereafter  described) ,  become 
saturated  with  water,  so  that  the  bird  is  obliged  to 
dry  them  by  sitting  in  the  sun  on  exposed  branches  of 
trees.  During  the  breeding  season,  the  sides  of  the 
neck  are  marked  by  long  hair-like  white  feathers,  while 
a  similar  white  patch  occurs  on  the  thighs.  The  head, 
with  its  remarkable  eyes,  is  quite  reptile-like  in  char- 
acter, as  are  also  the  actions  of  the  bird.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  and  adjacent  islands  they  congregate  in 
thousands,  and  may  be  seen,  together  with  Murres  and 
Guillemots,  seated  on  the  rocks.  In  captivity  they 
are  very  quarrelsome,  squabbling  and  fighting  almost 
continually,  and  unless  kept  in  a  large  enclosure  are 


CORMORANT— SNAKE-BIRD  25 

apt  to  kill  each  other,  the  sharp  and  heavy  beak  deal- 
ing terrible  blows. 

The  nestlings  are  ugly  little  creatures,  covered  with 
short  black  down,  which  gives  place  to  a  brown  plum- 
age. The  eyes  of  the  young  are  brown,  also.  Not 
until  they  are  fully  grown  is  the  dark-green  dress 
assumed.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  218. 

The  wonderful  skill  displayed  by  the  Cormorant  in 
its  pursuit  of  fish  is  turned  to  good  account  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  who  domesticate  these  birds 
and  train  them  to  catch  fish.  By  the  ingenious  device 
of  placing  a  ring  around  the  neck,  their  masters  pre- 
vent the  birds  from  swallowing  their  captures,  and 
compel  them  to  bring  each  fish  as  it  is  caught  to  the 
raft  from  which  the  fishing  is  carried  on. 

There  are  many  species  of  Cormorants,  the  smallest 
being  but  twenty-two  inches  long.  This  species  is 
found  in  Central  and  South  Europe,  North  Africa, 
and  Central  and  Southwest  Asia.  The  largest  species, 
known  as  Harris's  Cormorant,  is  nearly  extinct,  and 
is  found  only  in  one  of  the  Galapagos  Islands,  off  the 
coast  of  South  America.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
common  Cormorant,  but  has  quite  lost  the  power  of 
flight,  and  so  does  not  have  the  keel  of  the  breast-bone. 

Very  nearly  related  to  the  Cormorant  is  a  remark- 
able bird  known  as  the  Darter,  Snake-bird,  or  Water 
Turkey,  differing  chiefly  in  the  great  length  and  slen- 
derness  of  the  neck,  from  which  character  it  derives  its 
common  name.  The  beak  of  the  Snake-bird  is  quite 
unlike  that  of  the  Cormorant,  being  very  sharply 
pointed,  while  its  edges  are  armed  with  fine  needle-like 
spines.  When  fishing,  the  Darter  spears  its  victim, 


26  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

and  brings  it  wriggling  to  the  surface,  when  it  is 
tossed  up  and  swallowed.  See  Plate  38,  Fig.  222. 

The  subject  illustrated  here  is  a  native  of  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  America,  ranging  northwards  to 
West  Mexico  and  South  Carolina;  but  different 
species  are  met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Like 
the  Cormorants,  the  Darters,  in  summer,  have  the 
neck  adorned  with  long,  white,  hair-like  feathers, 
known  as  filo-plumes.  They  are  further  remarkable 
for  the  fact  that  the  tail-feathers  are  curiously  corru- 
gated. Though  occurring  on  the  sea-coasts,  the 
Darter  is  more  strictly  a  river  bird. 

One  of  the  best  known  species  of  Snake-bird  nests 
in  the  swamps  and  lagoons  of  Florida,  and  these  birds 
may  often  be  seen  sitting  on  branches  of  trees  in  the 
bright  sunlight,  drying  themselves  after  the  manner 
of  the  Cormorants.  While  in  this  position,  although 
the  body  and  wings  remain  stationary,  the  head  is  con- 
tinually turning  round  on  the  snake-like  neck.  Dar- 
ters are  extremely  wary  and  difficult  to  approach. 
They  are  strong  and  graceful  in  flight,  soaring  high 
above  their  nests,  much  like  the  Eagle.  The  male 
bird  is  a  rich  dark  bottle-green  colour,  with  very  soft 
and  shining  feathers.  The  upper  feathers  on  the 
wing  and  back  are  covered  with  a  curious  chalk-like 
substance,  forming  a  pattern  which  looks  not  unlike 
lace  overlying  the  dark  green.  This  substance  is  only 
on  the  surface  of  the  feathers,  however,  and  can  easily 
be  rubbed  off.  During  the  breeding  season,  the  eyelids 
and  the  bare  skin  around  the  base  of  the  beak  become 
very  brilliant  in  colour,  an  emerald-green,  with  outer 
edges  shading  into  deep  cerulean  blue,  while  the  eye 


215.  Manx 
Shear- water 


214.  Leach's 

Petrel 

(Oceanodrmna 

leucorhoa,). 


216.  Red-killed 

Tropic  Bird 

(Phaeton  tel/te- 

reus). 


217.  Gannet 
(Sula  basaana) 


219.  Frigate  Bird 
(Fregata  aquila). 


lorant 
(Phalacrocorax  caarbo) 


".  European  Pelican 
(Pelecanus  onocrotaius). 


SNAKE-BIRD— GANNET  27 

itself  is  bright  red.  The  mouth  and  inside  of  the 
throat  are  deep  purple.  The  female  is  much  more 
soberly  coloured,  and  is  a  lightish-brown  over  most  of 
the  body. 

When  shot  at  on  the  wing,  the  Darter  drops  im- 
mediately to  the  water  and  dives  beneath  it,  holding 
to  the  weeds  at  the  bottom  with  its  bill.  If  wounded, 
it  will  continue  to  hold  on  until  drowned,  and  cannot 
be  recovered.  Owing  to  the  extreme  toughness  and 
solidity  of  its  muscles,  the  Darter  is  very  difficult  to 
kill.  If  startled  when  swimming  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  it  quickly  dives  beneath,  and  swims  with 
only  the  tip  of  the  head  and  bill  projecting. 

The  eggs  of  both  Darters  and  Cormorants  are  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  layer  of  chalk,  which  may  be  scraped 
away,  revealing  a  shell  of  a  very  delicate  greenish-blue 
colour. 

The  Common  Gannet,  also  known  as  the  Solan 
Goose,  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  America 
and  Europe.  During  the  breeding  season  they  con- 
gregate in  large  numbers  on  rocky  ledges,  and,  al- 
though strong  flyers,  they  are  never  found  far  from 
land.  Though  closely  related  to  the  Cormorants  and 
Darters,  they  differ  from  them,  not  only  in  shape  and 
colouration,  but  in  their  method  of  fishing.  Their 
prey  is  captured,  not  by  pursuit  under  water,  but  by 
pouncing  upon  it  from  a  great  height  in  the  air. 

The  adult  bird  in  both  sexes  is  pure  white,  except 
for  the  primaries,  which  are  black,  and  a  light  buff 
tinge  over  the  head  and  neck.  The  young  birds  are 
a  blackish  ash  colour,  flecked  with  white,  but,  year  by 


28  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

year,  at  each  successive  moult,  they  grow  paler,  until, 
at  the  sixth  year,  they  assume  the  fully  adult  dress. 

Large  numbers  of  Gannets  breed  on  the  rocks  at 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  in  company  with 
many  other  forms  of  sea-birds.  As  many  as  nine 
species  are  known,  and  all  are  remarkable  for  the  fact 
that  under  the  skin  is  a  wonderful  system  of  air-cells, 
which  serve  to  break  the  force  of  the  impact  with  the 
water  when  the  birds  dive  for  their  food.  Like  the 
Cormorants,  Darters,  and  Penguins,  the  Gannets 
have  no  external  nostrils,  but  breathe  only  through 
the  mouth.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  217. 

PELICANS,  TROPIC  BIRDS,  AND  FRIGATE  BIRDS 

These  birds  are  very  remarkable  types,  nearly  re- 
lated to  one  another,  and  to  the  Cormorants  and 
Gannets. 

Pelicans  are  found  in  all  the  continents  of  the  world. 
The  European  White  Pelican,  which  is  figured,  is  a 
native  of  Southern  Europe  and  Africa,  ranging  east- 
ward into  Northern  India.  The  American  White 
Pelican  closely  resembles  it,  and  breeds  extensively 
in  the  northwestern  parts  of  the  United  States,  nota- 
bly on  lakes  in  California  and  Oregon,  and  on  islands 
in  Lake  Utah,  Utah.  These  are  the  largest  of  the 
Pelicans,  having  a  wing-spread  of  eight  and  a  half 
feet.  A  curious  thing  about  these  birds  is  that  al- 
though the  feathers  are  pure  white,  after  immersion 
in  the  water  they  have  a  delicate  pink  hue,  which 
slowly  fades  as  they  become  dry.  All  Pelicans  are 
provided  with  a  pouch  of  skin  which  hangs  down  from 


31 


175. 
Pratincole 

((jlareola 
pratincola). 


176. 

European 

Curlew 

(Nuinienius 

arquatusj. 


177.  Euro- 
pean Woodcock 
'j(Scolopax  rusticola). 


179.  Great  Snipe 
(Gallinayo  media). 


180.  GreenshaiiP 
Totanus 


BROWN  PELICAN 29 

the  lower  mandible  and  is  capable  of  being  enor- 
mously distended.  When  not  in  use,  this  pouch  is 
drawn  up  so  as  to  be  hardly  noticeable.  During  the 
breeding  season  the  upper  part  of  the  bill  of  the  male 
is  ornamented  by  a  horny  knob,  which  is  afterwards 
shed.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  220. 

The  Brown  Pelican  of  Florida  and  the  Pacific 
coasts  is  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the  White 
Pelican,  and  has  somewhat  different  feeding  habits. 
When  in  search  of  food,  they  fly  slowly  along,  in 
single  file,  twenty  or  thirty  feet  apart  and  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  above  the  water,  alternately  flapping  and 
sailing  for  short  distances.  Catching  sight  of  a  fish, 
a  Pelican  suddenly  drops,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Gannet,  opens  the  mouth  to  the  widest  extent,  the 
pouch  automatically  rounding  into  a  scoop  at  the  same 
time,  and  seizes  its  prey.  Pelicans  not  only  swim  with 
great  facility,  but  on  the  wing  are  almost  unrivalled. 

One  of  the  principal  breeding  places  of  the  Brown 
Pelican  is  Pelican  Island,  in  the  Indian  River.  For 
years  these  birds  were  much  hunted  and  were  in 
danger  of  extinction,  but  owing  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Audubon  Society  they  are  now  strictly  protected  and 
a  permanent  warden  is  stationed  on  the  adjoining 
mainland  to  see  that  the  laws  are  enforced.  They 
are  consequently  rapidly  increasing  in  numbers,  as 
many  as  six  or  eight  thousand  birds  nesting  on  that 
island  alone.  It  is  low  and  boggy,  scarcely  rising 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  at  times  is  prac- 
tically inundated.  The  few  thinly  scattered  man- 
grove bushes  are  occupied  to  the  fullest  capacity  by 
the  nesting  Pelicans,  and  others  build  upon  the 


30  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

ground.  The  nest  consists  of  a  few  twigs  and  branches 
of  the  mangrove  loosely  woven  together,  and  is  rather 
an  insecure  affair.  When  hatched,  the  young  are 
naked,  and  purplish-black  in  colour,  with  eyes  tightly 
closed.  They  gradually  become  covered  with  a  soft 
white  down,  which  is  succeeded  by  soft  greyish  feath- 
ers, and  the  adult  plumage  is  not  attained  until  the 
bird  is  several  years  old.  At  maturity,  the  top  of  the 
head  is  white,  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  the  neck  seal- 
brown  and  having  much  the  character  of  a  piece  of  old 
sealskin.  The  pouch  is  purplish-black,  and  the  gen- 
eral colour  of  the  bird  is  a  mixture  of  grey,  white  and 
brown.  The  general  effect,  however,  is  far  from 
brown,  but  is  rather  a  purplish-grey. 

When  at  rest,  the  head  of  the  bird  is  bent  down, 
with  the  bill  pressed  closely  against  the  breast.  This 
attitude  seems  to  be  simply  a  matter  of  balance,  as  the 
legs  of  the  Brown  Pelican  are  so  far  back  on  the  body 
that  when  the  bill  is  stretched  forward  horizontally  it 
overbalances  the  bird. 

These  Pelicans  are  not  at  all  shy,  and  may  be  ap- 
proached closely  while  on  their  nests,  although  at  such 
times  they  strike  at  the  intruder  with  their  bill.  Be- 
fore the  young  are  able  to  fly,  they  jump  down  from 
their  nests  and  congregate  in  large  numbers  on  the 
shore.  When  alarmed,  they  take  to  the  water. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  the  old  birds  coming  home 
to  their  young  after  a  day's  fishing.  On  approaching 
the  nest,  the  young  ones  awake  from  the  seeming 
lethargy  in  which  they  have  been  during  the  day,  and 
stretching  their  necks  upward,  thrust  their  heads  into 
the  pouches  of  the  parents,  which  are  opened  widely 


FRIGATE-BIRD 31 

to  receive  them.  The  adults  travel  many  miles  a  day 
in  search  of  food,  leaving  the  nests  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  sometimes  not  returning  until  dusk.  Occa- 
sionally an  Eagle  will  attack  the  young  birds  during 
the  parents'  absence,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  not  mo- 
lested. 

The  Brown  Pelican  does  not  at  any  season  of  the 
year  develop  the  brilliant  colours  of  beak  and  pouch 
displayed  by  its  white  relative,  nor  does  the  horny 
excrescence  on  the  bill  of  the  latter  ever  make  its  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Frigate,  or  Man-of-war  Bird,  is  met  with 
throughout  the  tropical  regions  of  the  world,  and  has 
even  strayed  so  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  a  re- 
markable bird  in  many  ways.  Spending  the  greater 
part  of  its  life  on  the  wing,  it  has  but  little,  use  for 
legs,  and  as  a  consequence  has  acquired  the  distinction 
of  having  the  smallest  feet,  for  its  size,  of  any  living 
bird.  Feeding  upon  squids,  small  crabs,  flying-fish, 
and  young  turtles  when  they  come  in  their  way,  Frig- 
ate Birds  nevertheless  derive  no  small  part  of  their 
food  by  robbing  others.  Their  victims  are  chiefly 
Terns  and  Gannets,  which,  returning  home  with  full 
crops,  are  chased  and  made  to  disgorge  their  captures. 
Before  the  coveted  morsel  has  reached  the  sea  again, 
it  is  caught  up  by  these  unscrupulous  highwaymen 
and  promptly  swallowed.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  219. 

During  the  nesting-season  the  males  develop  be- 
neath the  beak  a  great  pouch  of  a  brilliant  red  colour. 
This  can  be  inflated,  at  the  will  of  the  bird,  until  it 
rivals  the  rest  of  the  body  in  size.  "A  dozen  or  more 
of  these  birds  sitting  in  a  tree,"  says  Dr.  Andrews, 


32  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

of  the  British  Museum,  "with  outstretched,  drooping 
wings,  and  this  great  scarlet  bladder  under  their  heads, 
is  a  most  remarkable  sight.  When  a  hen  bird," 
he  continues,  "approaches  the  tree,  the  males  utter  a 
peculiar  cry,  a  sort  of  Vow- wow- wow- wow,'  and  clat- 
ter their  beaks  like  castanets,  at  the  same  time  shaking 
the  wings."  The  Frigate  Bird  is  probably  the  strong- 
est flyer  of  any  bird  in  the  world.  It  is  able  to  ride 
out  the  fiercest  storms,  and  has  been  seen  during 
heavy  gales  soaring  quietly  in  the  air,  without  any 
flapping  of  the  wings.  In  shape  it  is  peculiar,  having 
extremely  long,  pointed  wings,  a  long,  forked  tail,  a 
strong,  hooked  bill,  with  a  pouch  like  the  Pelican. 
The  East  Indians  make  use  of  this  bird  as  a  Carrier 
Pigeon. 

The  Tropic  Bird,  or  Boatswain  Bird,  is  a  native 
of  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
Oceans,  and  measures  about  40  inches  in  length ;  but 
this  includes  the  long  tail,  which  has  a  length  of  about 
26  inches.  See  Plate  37,  Fig.  216. 

Altogether  six  species  are  known,  of  which  three  are 
American.  Tropic  Birds  are  true  denizens  of  the 
ocean,  often  being  met  with  many  hundreds  of  miles 
from  the  land.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  sweeping. 
Like  the  Gannet,  they  procure  their  prey  by  diving, 
often  from  an  immense  height,  in  the  air.  On  land, 
as  might  be  expected,  they  are  greatly  at  a  disadvan- 
tage, and  walk  with  a  shuffling  gait.  Though  the 
majority  of  the  species  are  white,  with  black  pencil- 
lings,  one  is  remarkable  for  the  exquisite  orange  colour 
of  its  plumage. 


EUROPEAN  HERON— WARD'S  HERON  33 

THE   HERON   TRIBE 

While  the  birds  which  we  have  just  described  are 
all  remarkable  for  the  shortness  of  their  legs,  the  types 
now  to  be  considered  are  distinguished  by  the  great 
length  of  their  legs.  This  difference  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Herons  and  their  near  relations  catch  their 
prey  by  wading  in  shallow  water,  whereas  the  birds 
just  described  either  procure  their  prey  under  water, 
or  capture  it  by  plunging  from  a  height. 

The  Common  European  Heron  is  still  found  on 
the  streams  and  mud  flats  of  secluded  neighbourhoods ; 
but  it  is  a  very  wary  bird,  and  must  be  approached 
with  great  caution.  In  the  days  of  feudal  England 
it  was  strictly  protected,  on  account  of  the  sport  it 
afforded  in  falconry,  but  the  wonderful  sight  of  a 
"heronry,"  as  a  nesting-colony  of  these  birds  is  called, 
is  becoming  more  and  more  rare.  Their  food  con- 
sists largely  of  small  mammals  and  fish. 

The  nests  of  these  birds,  constructed  of  sticks,  are 
usually  placed  in  the  tops  of  trees,  but  they  will  also 
build  upon  the  ground.  See  Plate  33,  Fig.  192. 

The  Common  European  Heron  enjoys  a  wide 
range,  occurring  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  in  most  parts  of  Africa  and  Madagascar. 
It  is  also  found  in  Australia.  This  bird's  place  is 
taken  in  America  by  the  Great  Blue  Heron,  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  species.  It  has  a  very  extensive 
range,  being  found  throughout  most  of  the  eastern 
and  southern  States,  and  a  particularly  large  variety, 
called  Ward's  Heron,  occurs  in  Florida.  Standing 
about  four  feet  in  height,  when  fully  adult,  this  is  a 


34  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

magnificent  and  imposing  bird  in  appearance.  When 
in  full  plumage,  from  the  back  of  the  head  there  run 
two  long  black  plumes,  and  these,  together  with 
shorter  ones,  form  a  crest  which  the  bird  raises  when 
excited  or  alarmed.  The  bill  is  long,  and  sharply 
pointed,  and  with  it  the  Heron  can  deal  a  terrible 
thrust.  It  is  semi-nocturnal  in  habits,  and,  like  all 
other  Herons,  procures  its  food  by  wading  in  shallow 
water  and  quickly  darting  out  the  long  neck,  seizing 
its  prey  with  the  sharp  bill.  It  is  shy  and  wary,  and 
very  difficult  to  approach.  When  disturbed,  it  rises 
heavily  in  the  air,  flapping  its  broad  wings  slowly,  and 
uttering  harsh  guttural  croaks.  The  Great  Blue 
Heron  chooses  widely  varying  sites  for  its  nest,  but 
in  Florida  usually  builds  in  the  top  of  tall  pine  trees, 
some  distance  from  the  water. 

The  Great  White  Heron,  rivalling,  or  even  exceed- 
ing in  size  the  Great  Blue,  is  now  comparatively  rare 
in  its  former  haunts.  The  plumage  of  this  bird  is 
entirely  white.  The  feathers  of  all  the  Herons  are 
loose  on  the  body,  and  powder-down  feathers  are  al- 
ways present.  It  is  thought  by  some  naturalists  that 
the  powder  from  them  makes  the  feathers  of  the  bird 
waterproof. 

The  Little  Green  Heron  is  the  smallest  of  the 
American  species,  as  well  as  the  commonest.  It  is 
popularly  called  the  Shitepoke.  The  general  effect 
of  colouration  is  not  green,  as  one  would  think  from 
the  name,  the  neck  and  head  being  a  delicate  brownish 
hue,  while  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  exquisitely 
coloured  in  delicate  shades  of  grey  and  green.  The 
Little  Green  Heron  is  more  solitary  in  habits  than 


33. 


190. 
European  Spoonbill 


189.  European 

Flamingo 

( Ph  ten  icop  terus 

roseua). 


(Platalea  leucerodia). 


191.  European  Stork 
(Oconia  ciconia). 


194. 

European  Bittern 
(Botaurus  steliarisj. 


192.  European 

Heron 
(Ardea  cinerea). 


193.  European  Egret 
(Herodias  alba). 


LOUISIANA  HERON— SNOWY  EGRET  35 

most  other  members  of  this  family,  though  it  some- 
times builds  in  heronries.  The  nests  are  roughly 
made,  usually  placed  in  branches  of  trees,  or  in  bushes, 
and  the  eggs  vary  from  three  to  six  in  number.  The 
young  are  covered  with  hair-like  feathers,  and  are 
helpless  for  some  time. 

The  Louisiana  Heron  is  a  common  form  in  Florida, 
and  is  very  beautiful  in  plumage,  being  a  delicate 
bluish-grey  on  the  back  and  yellowish-brown  on  the 
breast. 

There  are  two  species  of  Night  Herons  in  America, 
the  Black-crowned  and  the  Yellow-crowned.  These 
birds  are  entirely  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  are  com- 
monly known  as  "Quawks,"  from  the  cry  they  utter 
when  sailing  through  the  air.  When  fully  adult,  the 
male  Black-crowned  Heron  is  very  beautiful  in  colour. 
The  head  and  back  are  greenish-black,  the  wings  and 
tail  greyish-black,  and  two  long  white  plumes  depend 
from  the  back  of  the  head,  except  just  after  the  breed- 
ing season,  when  they  are  shed.  The  eye  is  very 
large,  and  of  a  deep  blood-red.  Large  colonies  of 
these  birds  nest  in  the  swamps  of  Florida,  sitting  si- 
lent by  day,  brooding  in  quiet  spots  among  the  trees, 
but  at  night  they  rouse  and  fly  forth,  uttering  their 
peculiar  cry,  to  their  feeding  grounds  in  neighbouring 
streams. 

Among  the  Heron  tribe  are  certain  species  which 
possess  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  "fatal  gift  of 
beauty."  These  are  known  as  Egrets,  chief  among 
them  being  the  Great  White  Egret,  found  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  Snowy  Egret  and 
Little  Egret  of  America.  The  Snowy  Egret  is  pure 


36  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

white  in  colour  of  plumage,  has  a  golden  yellow  eye 
and  yellow  bill,  black  legs,  and  yellow  feet.  During 
the  breeding  season,  both  males  and  females  develop 
exceedingly  fine  recurved  plumes  growing  from  the 
back  and  falling  over  the  wings.  These  are  known 
to  commerce  as  "aigrettes,"  and  in  consequence  of 
their  popularity  among  ladies  of  fashion  this  beauti- 
ful bird  is  rapidly  becoming  extinct.  See  Plate  33, 
Fig.  193. 

The  American  Egret  is  also  white,  but  has  black 
legs  and  feet.  Its  plumes  grow  from  the  back,  like 
those  of  the  Snowy  Egret,  but  are  straight  instead  of 
recurved.  In  habits  the  Herons  are  a  very  homogene- 
ous family.  All  secure  their  prey  by  stealth,  or  stalk- 
ing, standing  quietly  in  the  water  until  a  fish  ap- 
proaches, when  they  quickly  dart  out  the  long  neck 
and  transfix  it  with  the  powerful  beak.  All  are 
strong  flyers,  though  their  feathers  are  rather  loosely 
set  on  the  body.  The  vertebras  of  the  neck  are  joined 
so  as  to  form  the  letter  S  in  the  resting  attitude  of  the 
bird,  the  spring  giving  added  power  to  the  forward 
stroke  of  the  neck  when  thrust  suddenly  out.  These 
birds  are  determined  fighters,  and  when  wounded 
must  be  approached  with  care  in  order  to  avoid  the 
rapid  thrusts  of  the  sharp  bill,  which  can  inflict  ter- 
rible injury.  They  seem  to  strike  preferably  at  the 
eyes,  and  many  a  dog  has  been  blinded  by  a  Heron 
that  had  been  partly  disabled  by  a  shot  from  his 
master's  gun. 

In  the  feudal  days  of  England,  hunting  Herons 
by  means  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon  was  a  favourite 
sport  with  lords  and  ladies.  A  party  would  set  forth 


34. 


195.  Marabou 
(Lqptoptiiui 


196. 

v  Sacred  Ibis 
'ftbia  (zthiopica) 


Gray  Lag  Goose 
(Anaer  anser). 


199.  Brant 
(Branta  bemicla) 


197. 
Crowned 

Crane 
(Balearica, 


-200.  Snow  Goose 
(Chen  hyperboreus). 


BITTERNS  37 


on  horseback,  with  Falcons  attached  to  the  wrists  of 
attendants,  and  when  a  Heron  was  sighted  flying  high 
in  the  air  the  Falcons  were  released.  The  Heron 
would  double  and  twist  in  every  direction,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  terrible  claws  of  the  pursuing  Falcon,  and 
often  gave  a  good  account  of  itself,  but  was  usually  no 
match  for  its  more  active  adversary. 

From  the  Herons  we  pass  to  the  Bitterns.  This 
bird  is  remarkable  for  the  wonderful  way  in  which  its 
plumage  harmonises  with  its  surroundings,  and,  as  if 
aware  of  this,  the  Bittern  seeks  safety  in  moments  of 
danger,  not  by  flight,  but  by  sitting  close,  with  up- 
stretched  neck  and  beak,  among  the  reeds.  When  in 
this  attitude,  with  the  bill  pointing  skywards,  the  eyes, 
curiously  enough,  may  be  directed  forward  over  its 
base  and  toward  the  observer.  The  American  Bit- 
tern is  similar  to  the  Common  European  Bittern. 
Like  the  Herons,  it  is  a  bird  that  delights  in  desolate 
places,  in  secluded  swamps  and  marshes,  from  which 
the  curious  booming  noise  it  makes  is  heard  at  fre- 
quent intervals  during  the  evening  hours.  See  Plate 
33,  Fig.  194. 

An  unusual  feature  about  the  Bittern  is  the  wide 
fringe  of  long  feathers  which  runs  along  the  throat, 
and  which,  when  extended,  gives  the  neck  a  very  wide 
appearance.  When  depressed,  these  feathers  meet  at 
the  back  of  the  neck,  which  is  clothed  only  in  short 
down. 

In  both  Herons  and  Bitterns  the  middle  claw  bears 
along  its  inner  edge  a  comb-like  fringe,  while  on  the 
breast  and  thighs  are  patches  of  the  remarkable  feath- 
ers known  as  powder-down.  These  feathers  break  up 


38  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

in  the  form  of  an  exceedingly  fine  powder,  but  it  is 
not  known  what  purpose  this  powder  serves,  although 
there  are  many  theories  in  regard  to  it. 

STORKS,   SPOONBILLS,  AND  IBISES 

Though  very  like  the  Herons  in  habits  and  general 
shape,  the  Storks  differ  from  them  in  many  anatomical 
characters.  There  are  a  number  of  species,  perhaps 
the  best  known  being  the  White  Stork  of  Europe.  In 
colour  it  is  rather  striking,  the  plumage  being  white 
over  the  body,  the  wings  tipped  with  black,  the  bill 
and  legs  a  bright  red.  Although  so  large  a  bird,  stand- 
ing four  feet  in  height,  this  Stork  is  a  powerful  flyer, 
making  yearly  trips  to  Africa  across  the  Mediter- 
ranean during  the  migrating  season.  Unlike  the 
Herons,  which  have  long,  spreading  toes,  enabling 
them  to  wade  in  shallow  streams,  the  Stork  has  com- 
paratively short  toes,  although  it  frequents  marshy 
places,  seeking  the  snakes,  frogs  and  lizards  which 
form  its  principal  food.  See  Plate  33,  Fig.  191. 

For  generations  the  Stork  has  been  held  in  great 
esteem  by  the  natives  of  Holland  and  Germany,  where 
it  has  been  rigidly  protected,  and  in  consequence  has 
become  very  tame,  building  nests  upon  the  tops  of 
chimneys  even  in  thickly  populated  towns. 

The  Adjutant  Storks,  which  occur  in  India  and 
Africa,  are  of  enormous  size,  standing  five  or  six  feet 
in  height.  Hanging  down  in  front  of  the  neck  is  a 
bag  which  can  be  filled  and  emptied  of  air  at  the  will 
of  the  bird.  These  Storks  are  sometimes  called  Mara- 
bous, and  furnish  Jhe  ornamental  feathers  known  to 


ADJUTANT   STORK— SPOONBILL    39 

commerce  as  marabou  plumes.  The  African  Adjutant 
Stork  has  a  heavy,  sharply  pointed  bill,  and  the  top 
of  the  head  and  neck  has  a  curious  bald  and  shrivelled 
appearance.  From  this  scaly  skin  projects  a  few 
sparse  feathers  resembling  hairs,  and  as  the  bird 
stands  with  its  head  sunken  between  its  shoulders  in 
a  dejected  attitude,  it  looks  not  unlike  some  weak  and 
tottering  old  man.  See  Plate  34,  Fig.  195. 

This  Stork  is  extremely  voracious,  and  can  swallow 
very  large  objects  at  a  gulp.  It  is  a  scavenger,  and 
in  some  places  is  protected  by  law.  Although  so  un- 
gainly when  at  rest,  this  bird  is  very  majestic  in  flight, 
the  wings  being  long  and  powerful. 

In  Central  Africa  is  found  a  species  known  as  the 
Whale-headed  Stork,  from  the  enormous  development 
of  its  bill. 

The  Jabiru  is  a  Stork-like  bird  found  in  South  and 
Central  America.  The  bill  is  long  and  heavy  and 
slightly  recurved  at  the  tip.  The  plumage  is  almost 
entirely  white ;  the  feet,  bill  and  bare  skin  on  the  neck 
are  black. 

The  European  Spoonbill  is  a  bird  which  a  few  cen- 
turies ago  bred  commonly  in  marshy  districts  through- 
out Europe,  but  is  now,  largely  owing  to  drainage, 
only  an  accidental  visitor.  The  bird  derives  its  name 
from  the  curious  spoon-like  shape  of  the  bill.  See 
Plate  33,  Fig.  190. 

The  Roseate  Spoonbill  of  America,  closely  allied 
to  the  European  species,  is  remarkable  for  the  ex- 
quisite reddish  tint  of  its  plumage,  which  is  particu- 
larly bright  on  the  under  portions  of  the  body  and 
wings.  The  Spoonbill  uses  its  bill  very  dexterously 


40  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

in  securing  its  food  as  it  wades  about  in  the  water, 
scooping  up  the  fish  and  frogs  that  come  in  its  way. 

The  Ibises,  though  they  bear  a  superficial  resem- 
blance to  the  Curlews,  really  belong  to  the  Stork  tribe, 
and  are  most  nearly  related  to  the  Spoonbills.  These 
birds,  like  the  preceding,  are  limited  to  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  earth.  The  Sacred  Ibis  of  Egypt  was 
an  object  of  worship,  and  after  death  was  embalmed 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  veneration  in  which 
it  was  held  may  be  seen  from  the  various  representa- 
tions of  it  upon  the  obelisks  and  other  remains  of  a 
former  civilisation.  In  form  the  Sacred  Ibis  is  not 
prepossessing.  The  long,  downward  curving  bill,  bare 
head  and  neck  are  black  in  colour,  the  skin  of  the 
legs  is  also  blackish.  These  birds  are  extremely  in- 
quisitive and  bold,  but  are  rather  difficult  to  approach 
on  account  of  their  remarkably  keen  sight.  The  long 
bill  is  used  as  a  probe,  and  the  bird  is  continually 
inserting  it  into  holes  and  crevices,  either  in  search 
of  food  or  simply  to  satisfy  its  curiosity.  See  Plate 
34,  Fig.  196. 

The  Scarlet  Ibis  of  our  Southern  States  is  the  most 
brilliantly  coloured  species  known,  and  is  probably 
the  brightest  in  hue  of  all  living  birds.  For  some 
reason,  however,  the  bird  soon  loses  its  glorious  colour 
in  confinement,  though  it  has  been  recently  found  that 
by  the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  food  the  colour  can  be 
to  some  extent  retained.  In  form  this  species  is  more 
delicate  and  smaller  than  the  Sacred  Ibis.  It  is  being 
rapidly  exterminated  by  plume-hunters. 

The  Wood  Ibis,  which  is  really  a  Stork,  is  a  larger 
bird  than  those  already  described,  but  is  coloured 


GLOSSY  IBIS 


somewhat  like  the  Sacred  Ibis,  the  plumage  being 
white,  the  wings  and  tail  tipped  with  black,  the  bare 
skin  of  the  head  and  feet  dark  in  colour.  These  birds 
nest  in  thick  swamps  in  the  interior  of  Florida,  and 
may  be  seen  standing  idly  about  in  the  blazing  sun, 
extending  their  wings  as  if  enjoying  the  great  heat, 
or  possibly  to  cool  their  bodies. 

The  Glossy  Ibis  is  another  American  form  that  is 
yearly  becoming  more  rare.  It  is  dark  brown,  almost 
black,  in  colour,  over  which  runs  a  brilliant  greenish 
iridescence. 

The  White  Ibis  is  the  commonest  species  found  in 
this  country.  The  plumage  is  pure  white,  except  for 
the  tips  of  the  primaries,  which  are  dark  green,  irides- 
cent, and  in  striking  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  plum- 
age. The  naked  skin  of  the  face  is  orange-red.  These 
birds  are  seen  in  Florida  flying  in  long  lines  to  their 
feeding-grounds  in  the  swamps,  and  adding  much  in- 
terest to  what  would  otherwise  be  a  most  monotonous 
landscape. 

FLAMINGOES 

As  to  the  exact  relationships  of  the  Flamingoes 
there  are  many  opinions  among  naturalists.  Some 
authorities  regard  them  as  long-legged  Geese,  others 
as  Storks  with  goose-like  beaks;  and  probably  the 
latter  view  is  nearer  the  truth.  The  beak  of  the  Fla- 
mingo is  unique  in  shape,  being  bent  downwards  in 
the  middle;  but  it  is  provided  with  ridges,  or  "gutters," 
like  those  found  in  Ducks  and  Geese.  Hence  the  sup- 
posed relationship  to  these  birds.  Their  common  name 
is  derived  from  their  flaming  colour. 


42  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  European  Flamingo  is  still  quite  common 
about  the  salt-water  lagoons  of  France  and  Spain, 
and  is  occasionally  found  in  Great  Britain.  See  Plate 
33,  Fig.  189. 

Of  the  seven  or  eight  species  known,  four  are 
American.  One  of  the  principal  species  breeds  in 
Florida  and  in  certain  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  which 
are  little  more  than  low  coral  reefs  covered  with  scant 
vegetation  and  mud-flats.  Here  they  congregate  in 
vast  numbers,  scraping  up  the  mud  to  make  their  won- 
derful nests,  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  height. 
The  young  are  unlike  the  parent  birds,  having  short 
legs,  and  looking  not  unlike  young  geese.  The  beak, 
too,  is  almost  straight  and  does  not  assume  the  re- 
curved form  until  the  bird  is  fully  adult.  The  use  of 
the  peculiar  shaped  bill  is  seen  when  the  Flamingo  is 
feeding.  Owing  to  its  extremely  long  legs,  the  head 
is  turned  upside  down  as  the  creature  dabbles  about 
in  the  water  in  search  of  its  food,  the  lower  part  of 
the  beak  becoming  uppermost. 

Mr.  Chapman,  in  his  "Camps  and  Cruises  of  an 
Ornithologist,"  says:  "Flamingoes  in  flight  resemble 
no  other  bird  known  to  me.  With  legs  and  neck 
fully  outstretched,  and  the  comparatively  small  wings 
set  half  way  between  bill  and  toes,  they  look  as  if 
they  might  fly  backward  or  forward  with  equal  ease. 
They  progress  more  rapidly  than  a  Heron,  and,  when 
hurried,  fly  with  a  singular  serpentine  motion  of  the 
neck  and  body,  as  if  crawling  in  the  air." 

The  plumage  is  dense,  like  that  of  a  Duck,  and  lies 
close  to  the  body.  The  primaries  and  secondaries  of 
the  wings  are  black,  and  form  a  striking  contrast  to 


BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD  43 

the  rest  of  the  plumage.  For  some  unknown  reason 
the  brilliant  colour  of  the  Flamingo,  like  that  of  the 
Ibis,  fades  in  captivity,  possibly  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  the  proper  food.  When  at  rest, 
this  bird  usually  stands  upon  one  leg,  the  other  being 
drawn  up  against  the  body,  with  the  long  foot  and 
toes  projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  supporting  limb. 
The  voice  of  the  Flamingo  is  a  harsh  croak,  and  when 
on  their  feeding-grounds  these  birds  are  extremely 
noisy,  their  combined  voices  making  an  uproar  that 
may  be  heard  for  a  great  distance. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DUCKS,  GEESE  AND  SWANS 
ORDER— ANSERES 

THE  Ducks,  Geese  and  Swans  form  a  well- 
defined  order  of  birds,  which  appear  to  be 
related  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Totipalmate 
birds  and  Storks,  and  on  the  other  to  the  birds  of  prey. 

All  are  aquatic  in  their  habits,  short-legged  and 
web-footed,  and  all  have  very  large,  thick,  fleshy 
tongues. 

Unlike  the  Totipalmate  birds  and  Storks,  their  nest- 
lings leave  the  egg  in  a  very  forward  state,  so  that  they 
can  run  and  swim  almost  immediately  after  hatching. 

The  Saw-billed  or  Fishing  Ducks  are  remarkable 
for  the  fact  that  the  edges  of  the  beak  are  armed  with 
sharp,  conical,  horny,  tooth-like  spines,  admirably 
adapted  for  the  capture  of  the  slippery  fish  on  which 
these  birds  live. 

Ducks  are  distinguished,  as  a  rule,  by  elaborately 
coloured  plumage.  Some  species  are  very  brilliantly 
marked,  but  many  of  them  are  principally  black  and 
white,  with  spots  and  stripes  arranged  in  various  deli- 
cate patterns  over  the  body,  giving  a  most  charming 
effect. 

All  the  members  of  this  family  are  strong  and  rapid 

44 


LABRADOR  DUCK— SMEW  45 

flyers,  rising  from  the  water  instantly  and  flying 
straight  ahead  at  very  great  speed.  When  migrating, 
they  rise  to  a  great  height  above  the  earth,  and  travel 
for  many  hours  without  resting.  The  wing-beat  is 
so  fast  as  to  be  almost  invisible,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  how  such  speed  can  be  kept  up  for  so  long 
a  time  without  the  birds  becoming  exhausted.  They 
are  gregarious,  flying  in  large  flocks,  and  are  usually 
very  noisy,  quacking  and  calling  almost  continuously. 
Many  species  are  common  to  both  the  Old  and  the 
New  World,  and  seem  to  travel  with  ease  between  the 
northern  parts  of  the  two  continents,  such  forms  as 
the  Scoters,  Pintails,  Widgeons,  in  particular,  being 
found  in  both  countries.  In  fact,  Ducks  are  spread 
over  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth,  some  spe- 
cies living  in  the  far  North,  while  others  inhabit  tropi- 
cal and  subtropical  regions.  Some  are  confined  to 
fresh  water,  others  seem  to  prefer  the  shores  of  the 
ocean.  The  latter  may  be  distinguished  by  the  lobe 
on  the  hind  toe.  See  Plate  35,  Figs.  204,  205. 

One  species,  known  as  the  Labrador  Duck,  of  which 
only  a  few  skins  are  preserved  in  museums,  has  be- 
come exterminated  within  recent  times.  In  the  early 
part  of  this  century  it  was  common  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, but  for  some  unexplained  reason  these  birds 
suddenly  disappeared,  so  far  as  is  known  not  one  ex- 
isting at  the  present  time. 

The  Goosander,  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  both 
continents,  and  the  Smew,  are  typical  examples  of  the 
Saw-bill  Duck.  In  them  the  bill  is  rounded,  instead 
of  flattened,  as  in  most  other  species,  and  is  provided 
with  tooth-like  spines.  It  also  has  a  hook  at  the  tip. 


46  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  feet  and  bill  of  the  Goosander  are  a  bright  red, 
the  head  is  dark  green,  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
black  and  white,  and  the  lower  part  white  washed  with 
pink.  The  Hooded  Merganser,  a  smaller  bird,  is 
also  black  and  white  in  general  colouring,  and  has  a 
beautiful  crest,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  See 
Plate  36,  Fig.  207. 

The  Smew  is  a  small  Fishing  Duck  found  only  in 
the  more  northerly  parts  of  the  Old  World.  The  col- 
ouring of  the  adult  male  is  white,  varied  with  black,  the 
head  crested  and  dark  green.  The  general  colour  of 
the  female  is  reddish-brown.  See  Plate  36,  Fig.  210. 

The  Velvet  Scoter,  or  Coot  as  it  is  commonly  called 
in  America,  is  a  large  Sea  Duck,  frequently  met  with 
along  the  coast  in  fall  and  winter.  It  feeds  largely 
on  shellfish,  which  it  obtains  by  diving.  In  colour  it 
is  a  rich  velvety  black,  relieved  only  by  a  small  white 
patch  on  the  head  and  wing  and  the  brilliant  orange 
of  beak  and  legs.  Several  species  of  this  Duck  are 
found  in  both  America  and  Europe.  See  Plate  36, 
Fig.  212. 

The  Eider-Duck  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the 
Duck  tribe,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  its  down  is  so 
much  in  demand  for  domestic  purposes.  This  down 
is  obtained  by  robbing  the  nest-material  of  the  breed- 
ing birds.  It  is  plucked  by  the  female  from  her 
breast  to  serve  as  a  lining  for  the  nest  and  a  covering 
for  the  eggs.  In  Greenland  and  in  various  parts  of 
Iceland  and  Labrador  many  people  make  their  living 
by  gathering  this  beautiful  down  and  selling  it.  The 
male  plumage  is  black  and  white  over  most  of  the 
body,  the  head  greenish,  and  the  female,  as  is  the  case 


209. 

Sheldrake 

(Tadorna  tadorna). 


207.  Goosander 
Merganser  merganser). 


208.  Old  Squaw  (Hareldn  hyemalis). 


210.  Smew 
(Mergus  albellus). 


212.  Velvet  Scoter 
(Oidemia  fusca). 


211.  Tufted  Duck  (Nyroca  fuliyula). 


213.  Golden-eye  (Clangula  clangula). 


LONG-TAILED  DUCK— MALLARD     47 

in  so  many  of  the  Ducks,  is  much  more  soberly  clad — 
in  brown,  with  overlying  patterns  of  reddish  and  grey- 
ish colour.  Like  the  preceding  species,  the  Eider- 
Duck  is  a  large  form,  and  has  a  gibbous,  or  humped, 
beak.  See  Plate  35,  Fig.  206. 

The  Long-tailed  Duck  is  a  relative  of  the  Eider, 
though  perhaps  not  so  handsome  a  bird.  The  white 
plumage  of  the  male  is  relieved  by  black  and  washes 
of  dark  brown  and  buff.  This  bird  breeds  as  far 
north  as  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  winters  as  far  south 
as  Virginia.  There  is  considerably  more  white  in  the 
winter  colouration  than  in  that  of  summer  In  this 
country  the  Long-tailed  Duck  is  usually  called  the 
Old- Squaw,  possibly  on  account  of  its  noisiness  when 
a  large  number  are  gathered  together.  The  long  tail- 
feathers  of.  this  Duck  make  it  easy  to  distinguish. 
See  Plate  36,  Fig.  208. 

The  Tufted  Duck,  although  well  known  in  Europe, 
is  not  found  in  America.  See  Plate  36,  Fig.  211. 

The  Golden  Eye  is  common  to  both  countries,  the 
American  variety,  sometimes  also  called  Garrot,  being 
much  larger  than  the  European.  This  bird  is  remark- 
able for  the  fact  that,  like  a  very  few  of  its  kind,  it 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  holes  of  trees.  The  colouration 
is  black  and  white,  a  distinguishing  mark  being  the 
round,  or  crescent-shaped,  white  spot  in  front  of  the 
eye.  See  Plate  36,  Fig.  213. 

Of  the  Fresh-water  Ducks  some  of  the  species  illus- 
trated are  the  Mallard,  the  Teal,  the  Widgeon,  and 
the  Pintail,  all  of  which  are  conspicuous  for  their 
beauty,  although,  as  with  the  species  already  de- 


48  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

scribed,  the  brilliant  plumage  is  confined  to  the  males, 
the  females  being  very  dull-coloured. 

The  Mallard  is  probably  the  best  known  of  our 
American  Ducks,  and  is  the  bird  from  which  our 
domestic  variety  is  derived.  The  male  is  rather 
brightly  coloured,  with  a  beautiful  dark-green,  velvety 
head,  and  a  white  ring  around  the  neck,  the  rest  of 
the  body  being  various  shades  of  brown  and  grey. 
The  eyes  are  dark,  the  legs  and  feet  a  bright  orange 
colour.  The  flesh  is  excellent,  and  is  much  prized  for 
food.  The  domestic  variety  is  larger  than  the  wild 
form,  and  flies  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  breast  muscles  are  less  developed.  See  Plate  35, 
Fig.  203. 

The  Black  Duck  seems  to  be  nearly  related  to  the 
Mallard,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  the  male  and 
female  are  almost  exactly  alike  in  colour,  both  being 
a  brownish-black,  with  a  patch  of  deep  iridescent  blue 
on  the  wings. 

Several  varieties  of  Teal  are  found  in  this  country, 
the  principal  forms  being  the  Blue-winged,  the  Green- 
winged,  which  most  nearly  resembles  the  European 
form,  and  the  Cinnamon.  All  are  most  beautiful 
little  Ducks,  with  very  delicate  shades  of  colour  in 
their  plumage.  See  Plate  35,  Fig.  202. 

Two  species  of  Duck  justly  celebrated  for  the  deli- 
cious flavour  of  their  flesh  are  the  Canvasback  and  the 
Redhead,  or  Pochard.  These  are  near  relatives,  and 
are  often  confused,  since  the  general  colour  is  much 
the  same  in  both  species.  The  head  and  part  of  the 
neck  are  reddish-brown,  the  body  a  rather  warm  grey 
and  black,  with  very  fine  black  lines,  or  rows  of  spots, 


MANDARIN— SCAUP 49 

on  certain  feathers.  They  may  at  once  be  distin- 
guished, however,  by  the  differently  shaped  head  and 
bills.  In  the  Canvasback,  the  head  is  pointed  at  the 
top,  the  bill  also  being  sharply  pointed  and  forming 
a  continuous  line  from  the  top  of  the  head.  The  Red- 
head has  the  usual  rounded  head  and  short,  broad  bill 
of  most  of  the  family. 

Perhaps  the  most  brilliantly  coloured  of  all  the 
Ducks  is  the  Mandarin,  a  native  of  China.  The  male 
of  this  species,  particularly  in  the  breeding  season,  has 
most  gorgeously  coloured  plumage,  almost  impossible 
to  describe.  The  bird  seems  to  be  cut  into  sections  of 
colour,  some  being  brown,  some  blue,  some  red,  white, 
and  so  on.  The  crest  is  purple  and  green.  These 
Ducks  are  rather  small,  and  have  the  ability  to  perch 
well  on  the  branches  of  trees. 

The  Wood  Duck,  or  Summer  Duck,  of  America  is 
closely  related  to  the  Mandarin,  which  it  somewhat  re- 
sembles in  colouring.  It  also  perches  in  trees,  and, 
indeed,  lays  its  eggs  in  the  holes  of  trees,  unlike  most 
Ducks,  which  make  their  nests  on  the  ground.  The 
female  of  both  the  Mandarin  and  the  Wood  Duck  is 
dull  brown  in  colour,  and  almost  invisible  as  she  stands 
by  the  side  of  her  brilliantly  attired  mate. 

The  Aylesburys  and  the  Pekin  Ducks  are  large, 
white  domestic  varieties  that  have  practically  lost  the 
power  of  flight.  Muscovys,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
are  descended  from  the  South  American  Wild  Duck, 
although  larger  than  the  two  preceding  species,  have 
retained  the  ability  to  fly.  These  Ducks  are  curiously 
mottled  in  places  with  dark  green  and  white,  and  have 


50  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

a  knob-like  excrescence  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  The 
naked  skin  around  the  eye  is  red. 

The  Common  Scaup  is  a  Duck  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Three  species  are  known  in  America, 
under  a  great  many  different  names.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  it  is  called  the  "Raft  Duck,"  from  the 
fact  that  they  swim  in  large,  compact  bodies  on  the 
surface  of  the  water.  When  alarmed,  they  rise  in  a 
mass,  fly  for  some  distance,  and  alight  in  the  same 
compact  form.  In  general  colour  they  resemble  the 
Canvasback  and  Redhead,  except  that  the  head  of  the 
male  is  black  instead  of  red.  The  flesh  is  fishy  in 
flavour,  and  is  not  particularly  esteemed. 

In  hunting  Ducks,  different  methods  are  employed, 
chief  among  them  being  the  use  of  decoys — pieces  of 
wood  carved  and  painted  to  resemble  any  particular 
species  of  Duck.  These  are  placed  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  reeds  and  rushes, 
the  sportsman  concealing  himself  a  short  distance 
away  under  a  blind  made  of  bushes.  As  the  wild 
Ducks  fly  overhead,  they  see  the  decoys,  and  mistak- 
ing them  for  living  birds,  drop  to  the  water  and  at- 
tempt to  mingle  with  them.  This  is  the  hunter's  op- 
portunity to  shoot  into  the  flock  before  it  can  rise. 
Owing  to  their  great  speed,  Ducks  are  difficult  to 
shoot  on  the  wing,  and  good  judgment  is  required  not 
to  place  the  charge  behind  them.  They  are  also  able 
to  carry  away  a  considerable  amount  of  shot  without 
falling. 

The  Sheldrake,  or  Sheld-duck,  is  a  large,  somewhat 
Goose-like  bird  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  but  not  represented  in  America.  In 


203. 

Mallard 
(Anas  boschas). 


.  European  Teal 
(Nettion  crecca).      / 


204.  European  Widgeon  (Afareca  penelope). 


205.   Pintail  (Daftla  acute}. 


206.  Eider 
(Sanutteria  mollitslma).  Male. 


SHELDRAKE— GEESE 51 

many  ways  it  is  remarkable.  The  sexes  are  coloured 
alike,  although  the  female  is  not  quite  so  vivid  in  hue 
as  the  male.  The  colours  are  strongly  contrasted — 
pure  white  relieved  by  broad  bands  of  bright  chestnut, 
and  rich  metallic  blue-blacks  and  greens.  The  beak 
is  a  wonderful  cherry-colour,  the  legs  and  feet  are  a 
delicate  pink.  The  Sheldrake  is  also  called  "Burrow 
Duck,"  from  its  habit  of  nesting  in  burrows  under- 
ground. These  they  usually  make  for  themselves,  but 
they  will  also  make  use  of  rabbit-burrows.  See  Plate 
36,  Fig.  209. 

The  Sheldrakes  are  further  remarkable  in  that  they 
never  assume  the  "eclipse"  dress,  as  it  is  called.  In 
most  other  species  of  Ducks,  it  will  be  remembered, 
the  female  is  a  dull  brownish  hue,  and  this  for  a  time  is 
assumed  by  the  males,  just  after  the  young  are 
hatched.  It  is  at  this  time  that  the  moult,  or  annual 
renewal  of  the  quills,  takes  place,  the  Ducks  shedding 
their  quills  all  at  once,  and  not  in  pairs,  as  do  most 
other  birds,  which  thus  retain  the  power  of  flight. 
Hence  they  are  compelled  to  seek  safety  by  hiding, 
which  they  do  very  successfully,  the  sober  hues  of  the 
female  dress  harmonising  perfectly  with  the  bird's  sur- 
roundings. But  the  male  Sheldrake,  instead  of 
adapting  himself  in  this  way  to  his  environment,  seeks 
safety  at  sea,  or  crouches  among  the  vegetation  near 
his  mate,  brooding  her  eggs  in  her  burrow. 

In  this  country,  the  Mergansers,  or  Fishing  Ducks, 
are  called  Sheldrakes.  The  Sheldrakes  serve  as  a 
connecting  link  between  the  Ducks  and  the  Geese. 

In  the  true  Geese,  as  in  the  true  Sheldrakes,  the 
sexes  are  coloured  alike — as  a  rule  very  soberly,  al- 


52  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

though  in  some  species  the  plumage  is  rather  conspicu- 
ous. The  neck  and  legs  are  longer  than  in  Ducks, 
the  bill  is  thicker,  and  the  hind  toe  has  no  lobe.  They 
are  also  less  aquatic  than  Ducks,  spending  much  time 
on  land  and  feeding  on  grass  and  cereals.  The  call 
of  the  Goose  is  known  as  honking;  they  also  give  ut- 
terance to  a  hissing  sound. 

What  we  may  call  a  typical  Goose  is  represented  by 
the  Grey-lag,  or  common  wild  Goose  of  Europe,  from 
which  our  domestic  Goose  is  supposed  to  be  derived, 
although  other  species  may  be  included  in  the  ancestral 
forms.  See  Plate  34,  Fig.  198. 

The  Brant  Goose  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
winters  southward.  It  is  very  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  white  markings  on  the  sides  of  the  neck. 
The  Black  Brant,  which  breeds  in  Western  North 
America,  has  a  white  ring  around  the  neck.  See 
Plate  34,  Fig.  199. 

A  very  handsome  form  is  the  Snow  Goose,  in  which 
the  plumage  is  snow-white,  relieved  by  the  black  quill- 
feathers  of  the  wings,  while  the  legs  and  feet  are 
bright  red.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  win- 
ters from  the  Chesapeake  Bay  southward  to  Cuba. 
A  considerably  smaller,  but  similar,  form  is  called 
the  Lesser  Snow  Goose.  In  this  the  head  is  some- 
times reddish.  See  Plate  34,  Fig.  200. 

Perhaps  the  best  known  American  species  is  the 
Canada  Goose.  It  has  a  white  patch  on  the  side  of 
the  head,  the  throat  is  white,  the  rest  of  the  neck  black. 
The  back  and  wings  are  mostly  greyish-brown.  Like 
the  other  wild  Geese,  this  bird  breeds  in  the  far  North, 


GEESE— SWANS  53 

migrating  southward  in  the  winter  in  vast  numbers, 
in  a  V-shaped  wedge,  the  lead  being  always  taken,  it 
is  said,  by  an  old  male  bird.  When  one  tires  he  falls 
back,  and  another  takes  his  place  as  leader  of  the  flock. 

The  White-fronted  Goose  is  represented  in  both 
European  countries  and  in  America,  the  American 
variety  being  somewhat  the  larger. 

The  Chinese  were  among  the  first  peoples  to  domes- 
ticate Geese,  Ducks,  and  Chickens,  and  they  have  bred 
many  singular  varieties  in  the  course  of  the  centuries. 
The  so-called  Chinese  Goose  has  huge  excrescences  on 
top  of  the  bill  and  curious  wattle-like  appendages 
under  the  throat.  Geese  have  figured  for  centuries  in 
the  history  of  mankind.  They  were  venerated  by  the 
Romans  from  the  fact  that  they  were  supposed  to  have 
saved  the  city  by  their  cackling  when  it  was  threatened 
by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus. 

The  domestic  Goose  is  a  fierce  and  aggressive  bird, 
and  a  blow  from  its  powerful  wings  has  been  known 
to  inflict  serious  injury.  The  attitude  of  the  Goose 
when  alarmed  or  angry — lowering  its  head,  hissing, 
and  running  after  its  enemy — is  very  singular.  In 
Holland  and  England  for  many  years  the  Goose- 
girl  has  been  a  well-known  figure  in  literature  and  in 
painting.  In  those  countries  Geese  are  taken  regu- 
larly out  to  graze  in  the  fields,  like  sheep  or  cattle, 
the  birds  progressing  in  a  solid  body  and  feeding  as 
they  go. 

Swans  are  very  large  birds,  with  long  sinuous  necks, 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  world  except  in  Africa. 
On  land  they  are  clumsy,  owing  to  the  backward  posi- 
tion of  their  legs,  waddling  along  and  using  their  neck 


54  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

as  a  balance ;  but  once  in  the  water,  they  are  different- 
looking  creatures,  gliding  smoothly  along  with  the 
beautiful  neck  carried  in  a  graceful  curve.  Although 
such  large  birds,  when  fairly,  on  the  wing  they  have 
a  very  powerful  flight.  Like  the  Flamingoes,  they 
fly  with  the  neck  stretched  forward  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent, with  their  feet  spread  out  behind  them  to  act  as 
a  rudder.  From  ancient  times  these  birds  have  been 
domesticated  in  Europe  and  kept  as  an  ornament  to 
streams  and  lakes. 

When  nesting,  Swans  are  very  savage  and  coura- 
geous, defending  their  nests  to  the  last  extremity.  One 
has  been  known  to  break  a  man's  leg  by  a  blow  from 
the  powerful  wing,  and  there  is  an  instance  of  a  Swan 
and  a  fox  having  been  found  dead  together,  the  fox 
having  attacked  the  young,  and  killed  the  parent  bird, 
but  losing  its  own  life  as  well. 

When  alarmed  or  excited,  the  Swan  has  a  curious 
habit  of  raising  its  wings  over  its  back,  and  the  effect 
of  these  beautiful  feathers  falling  gracefully  back- 
ward and  reflected  in  the  water  is  most  charming. 

Swans  are  extremely  voracious,  and  when  in  the 
same  pond  with  Ducks  and  Geese  will  invariably  drive 
them  away  at  feeding-time,  if  possible. 

The  best-known  species  is  the  European  Mute 
Swan,  the  one  usually  seen  in  public  parks  and  col- 
lections. The  plumage  is  white,  the  bill  red,  with  a 
curious  bulbous  place,  or  knob,  at  the  base.  See  Plate 
35,  Fig.  201. 

The  Australian  Black  Swan  has  a  neck  consider- 
ably longer,  in  proportion,  than  that  of  other  Swans, 
and  the  feathers  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  es- 


BLACK-NECKED  SWAN 55 

pecially  over  the  back,  have  a  curled  or  ruffled  appear- 
ance, instead  of  lying  smoothly  against  the  body.  It 
is  entirely  black  except  for  certain  white  wing-feath- 
ers, and  the  bill  and  eyes  are  red. 

Two  species  of  Swan  are  found  in  North  America, 
the  Trumpeter,  so  called  from  its  loud,  sonorous  call, 
and  the  Whistling  Swan.  The  former  species  is  now 
exceedingly  rare.  Both  species  breed  in  the  Arctic 
regions  and  migrate  southward  to  the  Gulf  coast. 
For  some  reason  they  have  never  thriven  in  confine- 
ment. In  both  forms  the  plumage  is  white;  the  bill 
and  feet  are  black;  and  the  Whistling  Swan  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  small  yellow  spot  on  each  side  of  the 
bill.  The  young  of  all  white  Swans  are  greyish  or 
brownish  in  tone  until  maturity. 

In  South  America  is  found  the  Black-necked  Swan, 
a  striking-looking  bird  with  pure  white  plumage,  ex- 
cept for  the  black  neck.  The  beak  in  this  species  is 
provided  with  a  conspicuous  scarlet  wattle — a  charac- 
ter lacking  in  the  North  American  Swans,  but  found 
in  the  European  forms. 


CHAPTER  VI 

BIRDS   OF   PREY — SECRETARY-BIRD,    EAGLES,    BUZ- 
ZARDS, HAWKS,  KITES,  VULTURES 
AND  FALCONS 

ORDER— ACCIPITRES 

AMONG  the  Birds  of  Prey  the  older  naturalists 
included  Owls,  which  they  distinguished  as 
Nocturnal,  or  Night-flying,  Birds  of  Prey. 
But  it  is  now  known  that  Owls,  though  in  many  re- 
spects closely  resembling  the  birds  to  be  described  in 
this  chapter,  are  members  of  a  very  different  group. 
They  are,  in  short,  nearly  related  to  the  Nightjars. 

The  purpose  of  classification,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, is  not  so  much  to  bring  together  those  birds 
which  are  externally  similar,  as  those  which  are  struc- 
turally related  one  to  another.  Unrelated  birds  may, 
and  often  do,  resemble  one  another,  because  they  lead 
similar  lives,  and  thus  have  become  slowly  changed  till 
they  assume  a  common  likeness;  while  birds,  on  the 
other  hand,  which  are  really  closely  related,  come  to 
assume  very  different  shapes,  because  their  mode  of 
life  is  different. 

The  relationship  of  birds  one  to  another  is  to-day 
determined  rather  by  anatomical  structure  than  by  ex- 

56 


BIRDS  OF  PREY  57 

ternal  form.  And  it  is  on  these  grounds  that  anato- 
mists have  separated  the  Owls  from  the  Eagle  tribe. 

The  hooked  beaks,  sharp  claws,  and  upright  car- 
riage of  the  body,  which  distinguish  both  the  Owls 
and  the  Day-flying  Birds  of  Prey,  or  Accipitres,  owe 
their  being  to  the  same  causes.  That  is  to  say,  when 
the  ancestors  of  these  birds  began  preying  on  their 
neighbours,  they  did  it  because  they  were  stronger, 
and  had  heavier,  sharper  beaks,  and  longer,  sharper 
claws  than  their  victims.  As  time  went  on,  the  de- 
scendants of  these  marauders  gradually  improved 
these  weapons,  and  this  improvement  is  still  taking 
place. 

Birds  of  Prey  are  noted  for  certain  striking  char- 
acteristics, among  them  their  great  powers  of  flight, 
their  fierce  and  keen  eyes,  recurved  beaks,  and  sharply 
curved  and  pointed  claws.  In  character  they  differ 
considerably,  some  species  being  bold  and  aggressive, 
while  others  are  comparatively  shy  and  retiring. 
Many  of  them  are  very  large  birds.  All  are  flesh- 
eaters,  some  confining  themselves  almost  entirely  to 
the  flesh  of  animals  and  birds,  while  others  feed  upon 
small  snakes,  lizards,  and  even  insects.  All,  except- 
ing possibly  the  Caracara,  seize  their  prey  with  the 
feet,  and  not  with  the  bill,  driving  the  pointed  talons 
deep  into  the  flesh  and  tearing  off  pieces  with  their 
sharp,  hooked  beaks. 

The  nests  are  always  flimsy-looking  affairs,  loosely 
constructed  of  sticks  placed  together.  They  make 
most  devoted  parents,  however,  both  male  and  female 
working  together  to  supply  the  nestlings  with  food. 
The  young  remain  in  the  nests  for  a  considerable  time 


58  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

before  learning  to  fly,  and  having  voracious  appetites, 
consume  enormous  quantities  of  game  or  carrion  dur- 
ing that  time. 

Birds  of  Prey  are  found  in  all  regions  of  the  world, 
from  the  tropics  to  extremely  cold  countries.  In  most 
cases  they  live  in  barren,  rocky  districts,  although 
some  species,  particularly  in  South  America,  are  for- 
est-loving, building  their  nests  in  the  tops  of  tall  trees, 
from  which  they  are  able  to  see  for  enormous  dis- 
tances. Some  species,  such  as  the  Bald  Eagle  of  our 
own  country  and  the  Fish  Hawks  and  the  White- 
tailed  Eagle  of  Europe,  feed  almost  entirely  on  fish; 
others,  such  as  the  Golden  Eagle,  prefer  animal  diet. 
Nothing  can  surpass  the  energy  and  dash  with  which 
many  of  the  smaller  Falcons  and  Hawks  pursue  their 
prey,  and  an  instance  has  been  cited  of  a  Sparrow 
Hawk  impetuously  crashing  through  the  glass  of  a 
greenhouse  in  order  to  get  at  a  bird  hanging  in  a  cage 
inside. 

The  voice  of  almost  all  Birds  of  Prey  is  a  harsh  and 
rasping  scream,  and  a  few  species,  among  them  the 
African  Sea  Eagles,  are  extremely  noisy,  uttering 
their  calls  at  regular  intervals.  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  they  are  silent.  They  are  not  particularly 
intelligent,  and  most  of  them  are  shy  in  captivity. 
Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  some  species  in  con- 
finement, as  they  batter  themselves  to  death  against 
the  bars  of  their  cage.  The  Vultures,  however,  be- 
come remarkably  tame,  showing  no  fear  of  human 
beings.  They  are  very  Crow-like  in  general  actions 
and  demeanour,  being  inquisitive  and  easily  ap- 
proached without  taking  alarm,  even  in  the  wild  state, 


SECRETARY-BIRD 59 

and  without  exception  they  do  well  in  captivity.  Al- 
though having  enormous  wings,  they  take  the  greatest 
care  of  them  in  order  not  to  injure  their  feathers.  The 
Eagles,  on  the  contrary,  batter  themselves  about, 
breaking  their  feathers,  and  not  infrequently  the 
wings  themselves. 

All  these  birds  normally  attain  a  great  age,  though 
just  how  long  they  live  is  not  known.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  but  a  single  mate,  and  instances  have 
been  recorded  of  birds  that  remained  alone  for  the  rest 
of  their  lives,  after  having  been  deprived  of  their 
mates.  Year  after  year  they  return  to  the  same  nest, 
adding  to  it  each  season  until  it  becomes  an  enormous 
mass  of  trash  and  sticks.  When  possible,  they  build 
in  inaccessible  places,  along  the  sides  of  steep  preci- 
pices or  in  the  tops  of  high  trees. 

The  Eagle  has  been  taken  from  time  immemorial 
as  a  symbol  of  strength,  and  is  used  emblematically 
by  nearly  all  civilised  nations.  The  North  American 
Indians  paid  great  reverence  to  this  bird,  the  braves 
when  going  to  war  wearing  bonnets  with  Eagle 
feathers  stuck  in  them  and  otherwise  decorating  them- 
selves with  the  plumage. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Accipitres  is  the 
Secretary-bird,  because  of  the  very  great  length  of 
legs,  the  long  tail,  and  the  long  feathers  which  spring 
from  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck.  These  last,  from 
their  fancied  resemblance  to  a  quill  pen  behind  the  ear 
of  a  secretary,  or  scribe,  have  given  the  bird  its  name. 
A  native  of  South  Africa,  this  bird  is  held  in  high  re- 
gard there  from  the  fact  that  its  favourite  food  is 
snakes,  many  of  which  are  poisonous,  and  conse- 


60  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

quently  dreaded  by  all  who  have  to  live  in  that  region 
of  the  world.  The  bird  attacks  and  kills  these  rep- 
tiles by  pounding  them  with  its  feet,  using  its  wings 
as  a  shield  against  bites.  On  account  of  its  valuable 
services  it  is  often  domesticated  by  the  colonists  of 
Africa.  The  Secretary-bird  builds  a  huge  nest  of 
sticks,  in  which  the  nestlings  remain  for  six  months. 
See  Plate  3,  Fig.  13. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  Birds  of  Prey  is  the 
common  Red  Kite  of  Europe.  It  was  once  extremely 
common,  and  was  nowhere  more  plentiful  than  in 
London,  where  its  numbers  excited  the  comment  of  all 
foreign  visitors.  But  that  was  several  hundred  years 
ago,  when  it  was  unmolested,  being  highly  valued  as 
a  scavenger.  It  was  also  held  in  great  esteem  by  the 
falconer,  who  hunted  it  with  trained  Falcons.  No  bird 
has  a  more  beautiful  flight  than  the  Kite.  See  Plate 
4,  Fig.  17. 

The  Swallow-tailed  Kite  of  this  country  is  a  very 
handsome  bird,  purplish-black  on  the  back  and  wings, 
with  head,  neck,  and  under-parts  pure  white.  The 
tail  is  extremely  long  and  forked.  Its  flight  is  re- 
markably swift  and  graceful. 

Other  American  species  are  the  White-tailed  Kite, 
distinguished  by  its  black  shoulders,  greyish  back  and 
white  tail,  and  the  Mississippi  Kite,  by  its  slate- 
coloured  back,  black  tail,  and  buff  under-parts 
streaked  with  reddish  and  blackish  colour. 

The  Harriers  are  peculiar  in  that  the  feathers  of  the 
face  are  arranged  somewhat  after  the  fashion  that  ob- 
tains among  the  Owls.  The  female  differs  remark- 
ably from  the  male  in  colour,  being  brown  above  and 


1 4.  European  Goshawk 
(Astur  paltunbarius). 


5 


15.  Hen  Harrier  (Cirew  cyaneus). 


16.  European  Buzzard 
(Buteo  buteo). 


17.  European  Kite 
ilmiA  milmis). 


HARRIER— SPARROW  HAWK         61 

having  the  tail  banded  with  five  dark  bars,  and  on 
this  account  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a  distinct 
species,  known  as  the  Ring-tail.  The  males  are  bluish 
above,  white  below,  with  reddish  spots.  These  birds 
are  distinguished  by  the  unusual  length  of  their  legs, 
wings,  and  tail.  There  are  perhaps  a  dozen  species 
distributed  throughout  the  world. 

The  American  Harrier,  or  Marsh  Hawk,  is  almost 
identical  with  the  European  species  figured.  It  is 
common  throughout  North  America,  and  is  one  of  our 
beneficial  Hawks,  feeding  upon  reptiles,  mice,  locusts 
and  grasshoppers.  In  flight  the  females  may  be 
recognised  by  the  reddish  colour  of  the  under-parts, 
spotted  with  darker;  the  males  by  the  white  spotted 
under-surface.  See  Plate  4,  Fig.  15. 

The  Goshawk  is  an  exceedingly  powerful  bird,  hav- 
ing hind  toes  remarkable  for  their  size  and  strength. 
In  the  old  days  it  was  much  esteemed  by  falconers,  the 
female,  which  is  considerably  larger  than  the  male  (as 
in  all  Birds  of  Prey) ,  being  flown  at  such  large  game 
as  Geese  and  Herons,  while  the  male  was  allowed  to 
take  smaller  birds,  such  as  Quails  and  Partridges. 
On  account  of  its  relatively  short  wings  and  long  tail, 
it  is  able  to  turn  and  twist  with  wonderful  dexterity. 
The  American  Goshawk  is  larger  than  the  European, 
but  resembles  -it  in  general  colouration,  differing 
chiefly  in  that  the  under-parts  are  freckled  rather  than 
barred.  The  plumage  of  the  sexes  is  much  alike. 
See  Plate  4,  Fig.  14. 

The  European  Sparrow  Hawk  is  a  near  relative 
of  the  Goshawk,  but  is  a  much  smaller  bird.  Dis- 
parity of  size  in  the  sexes  is  nowhere  more  marked 


62  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

than  in  the  Sparrow  Hawks;  they  also  differ  greatly 
in  colour,  the  female  lacking  the  beautiful  chestnut 
colour  that  is  on  the  breast  of  the  male.  See  Plate 
3,  Fig.  12. 

Here,  the  place  of  the  European  Sparrow  Hawk  is 
taken  by  two  quite  distinct  species — the  Sharp-shinned 
and  Cooper's  Hawk,  both,  however,  bearing  a  very 
close  resemblance  to  the  Old  World  form.  The  bird 
known  as  Sparrow  Hawk  in  this  country  belongs  to 
a  different  section  of  the  Hawk  tribe.  The  two 
American  species  mentioned  are  similar  in  colour- 
greyish  above,  white  barred  with  reddish  below,  with 
the  shafts  of  the  feathers  blackish,  and  tail  crossed 
with  black  bars.  The  tail  of  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk 
is  square  at  the  end,  while  that  of  Cooper's  Hawk  is 
rounded.  Both  of  these  varieties  are  very  destructive 
to  poultry.  Cooper's  Hawk  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  other  species. 

Among  other  common  American  Hawks  are  the 
Red-shouldered,  so  called  from  the  rich  reddish  color 
of  the  lesser  wing-coverts;  the  Red-tailed,  from  its 
reddish-brown  tail,  a  larger  species,  but  similar  in 
habits;  the  Broad- winged,  and  the  Zone-tailed. 

We  pass  now  to  the  Buzzards  and  Eagles,  which 
blend  one  into  the  other. 

The  Common  European  Buzzard  is  still  met  with, 
although  it  is  now  a  misnomer  to  call  it  "common." 
Sixty  years  ago  it  bred  throughout  Great  Britain  in 
considerable  numbers,  but  to-day  it  is  only  occasion- 
ally seen.  In  the  matter  of  plumage  this  species 
varies  greatly,  especially  in  the  character  of  the  mark- 
ings. Some  birds  are  a  mixture  of  very  dark  and 


GOLDEN  EAGLE -SPOTTED  EAGLE  63 

light  brown,  others  are  almost  cream-coloured,  while 
the  markings  on  the  breast  often  form  a  T-shaped 
pattern. 

The  Buzzard  feeds  on  field-mice,  reptiles,  frogs,  and 
occasionally  earthworms,  varying  this  diet  with  small 
birds.  See  Plate  4,  Fig.  16. 

Perhaps  the  best  known  of  the  true  Eagles  is  the 
Golden  Eagle,  the  original  species  to  which  the  name 
Eagle  was  given,  a  native  of  Europe  and  also  of  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  supposedly  golden  colour  of  the  plum- 
age, but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  a  rich  dark  brown 
in  tone.  The  legs  are  a  brilliant  yellow,  and  the  eyes 
are  dark  brown  and  mild  in  expression.  The  bird  it- 
self, however,  is  one  of  the  fiercest  and  most  rapacious 
of  the  Order  to  which  it  belongs.  It  feeds  upon  hares 
and  small  mammals,  Grouse  and  other  birds;  and 
when  pressed  to  hunger  it  will  even  eat  carrion.  Of 
the  numerous  stories  told  of  these  birds  carrying  away 
children  in  their  claws,  none  has  ever  been  authenti- 
cated. The  eggs  of  the  Golden  Eagle,  two  or  three 
in  number,  vary  greatly  in  colouration.  See  Plate  2, 
Fig.  8. 

The  Spotted  Eagle  is  a  bird  which  can  be  easily 
recognised  by  the  white  patch  on  the  shoulders.  It  is 
a  southern  form,  occurring  in  Southeast  Europe,  and 
ranging  thence  through  Palestine  to  India  and  China. 
While  some  travellers  describe  it  as  displaying  great 
beauty  and  majesty  in  its  movements,  and  dauntless 
courage  when  foraging  for  food,  others  tell  a  different 
story.  One  writer  assures  us  that  it  is  a  dull  and 
stupid  bird.  "I  have  driven,"  he  says,  "the  female  off 


64  BIRDS    OF   THE    WORLD 

her  eggs,  and  plundered  the  nest  before  the  eyes  of 
the  pair,  without  either  of  them  flapping  a  pinion 
to  defend  what  even  a  little  Shrike  will  stoop  at  once 
to  save."  Another  writer  says  that  he  generally 
found  these  birds  gorged  with  carrion,  sitting  stupidly 
around,  when  they  would  allow  one  to  come  within 
a  few  yards  of  them.  See  Plate  3,  Fig.  10. 

The  White-tailed  Eagle,  or  Sea  Eagle,  is  found  in 
the  more  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  In 
general  colour  it  somewhat  resembles  the  Golden 
Eagle,  but  whereas  in  that  species  the  legs  are  feath- 
ered to  the  toes,  in  the  Sea  Eagle  the  tarsus,  or  shank, 
is  covered  with  small  yellow  scales.  Very  old  birds 
have  the  head  and  neck  almost  white.  The  white  tail 
is  not  acquired  until  the  bird  is  several  years  old. 

This  bird  lives,  for  the  most  part,  on  fish  and  offal 
cast  up  by  the  sea.  Occasionally  it  preys  upon  hares 
and  rabbits,  and  when  much  pressed  by  hunger  it  has 
been  known  to  attack  lambs.  See  Plate  3,  Fig.  9. 

A  somewhat  smaller  bird  than  the  preceding,  but 
resembling  it  in  character  and  in  appearance,  is  the 
Bald  Eagle  of  America,  which  figures  as  our  national 
emblem.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male,  but  both 
have  white  heads  and  tails,  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
being  a  dark  chocolate-brown.  The  white- feathered 
head  has  probably  led  to  the  name  bald.  The  bill  is  yel- 
lowish, the  feet  are  a  brighter  golden  yellow,  the  claws 
black.  While  extremely  fond  of  fish,  the  Bald  Eagle 
is  not  a  particularly  good  fisherman,  and  does  not 
scruple  to  take  advantage  of  the  Fish  Hawk's  greater 
skill.  Watching  its  opportunity,  the  Eagle  pounces 
upon  the  Fish  Hawk  as  it  rises  from  the  water  with 


10.  Spotted  Eagle 
(Aquila  maculata). 


9.  White-tailed  Eagle 
(Haliaetiis  albicillaj. 


11.  Kestrel  (Cerchneix 
tinnunculus). 


13.  Secretary-bird 
(Serpentarius  secret aritis).  # ••«*— 


12. 

Sparrow  Hawk 
(Acdpiter  ni 


BALD  EAGLE  65 

the  finny  prey  struggling  in  its  claws,  and  worries 
the  smaller  bird  until  it  drops  the  fish,  whereupon  the 
Eagle,  making  a  sudden  downward  dart,  dexterously 
catches  it,  and  carries  it  off  to  his  nest  to  be  eaten  at 
leisure.  In  Florida  one  is  treated  to  daily  exhibitions 
of  these  contests  between  Bald  Eagles  and  Fish 
Hawks.  See  Frontispiece. 

The  nest  is  usually  placed  in  the  top  of  some  tall 
pine  or  other  tree,  in  an  exposed  position,  and  consists 
of  a  mass  of  twigs  and  sticks  roughly  interwoven. 
It  is  occupied  by  the  same  pair  of  birds  for  a  number 
of  years;  indeed,  it  is  thought  that  Eagles  mate  but 
once,  a  pair  continuing  to  live  together  until  the  death 
of  one  or  the  other  of  the  birds.  In  Florida  these 
birds  are  seen  wheeling  and  screaming  overhead  at 
almost  any  time  of  the  day.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
the  immature  bird  is  at  one  period  larger  than  the 
adult  of  either  sex,  being  more  loosely  jointed  and 
bulkier,  and  becoming  more  compact  in  form  as  it 
reaches  maturity. 

Audubon,  in  his  "North  American  Birds,"  has  given 
a  thrilling  account  of  the  pursuit  and  capture  of  a 
Swan  by  a  pair  of  Bald  Eagles.  When  living  prey 
is  not  available,  this  bird  does  not  disdain  carrion,  and 
may  often  be  seen,  like  the  Sea  Eagle  of  Europe,  pick- 
ing up  the  remains  of  dead  fish  and  other  offal  cast 
up  by  the  waves. 

Probably  the  largest  of  the  Eagles  in  actual  meas- 
urement, although  not  in  weight,  is  the  great  Kam- 
chatka Sea  Eagle,  certainly  one  of  the  finest  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus.  This  great  bird  lives,  as  its 
name  implies,  along  the  shores  of  Siberia,  and  also  in 


66  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

neighbouring  portions  of  the  United  States,  Alaska 
and  the  Behring  Sea.  It  is  particularly  striking  in 
appearance,  having  an  enormous  yellow  bill,  bright 
yellow  feet,  and  rich  dark  brown  plumage  with  cer- 
tain of  the  wing-feathers  snow-white.  The  tail  is  also 
pure  white.  The  sight  of  one  of  these  grand  birds 
flying  over  the  deep  blue  water  of  the  ocean  must  be 
most  inspiring.  Owing  to  the  inaccessibility  of  the 
region  in  which  it  is  found,  the  life-history  of  this  bird 
is  comparatively  little  known,  although  it  is  safe  to 
presume  that  in  habits  it  resembles  Eagles  in  general. 
One  of  the  most  extraordinary  of  the  Eagles,  in- 
deed of  all  Birds  of  Prey,  is  the  great  Harpy  Eagle 
of  South  America,  which  inhabits,  as  a  rule,  the  forests 
of  the  Amazon,  although  its  range  extends  into 
Mexico  and  through  Central  America.  The  Harpy 
Eagle  is  short- winged  and  does  not  soar  into  the  air 
to  such  a  height  as  some  of  the  other  Eagles,  though 
its  power  of  flight  is  considerable.  The  primary 
feathers  of  the  wing  do  not  extend  below  the  second- 
aries, so  that  when  the  wings  are  folded  we  do  not 
see  the  sharp  projecting  points  of  the  long  wing- 
feathers  extending  across  the  tail,  as  in  the  Bald  and 
Golden  Eagles.  In  colour  the  adult  is  a  deep  bluish- 
green  on  the  back  and  pure  white  on  the  breast.  The 
head  is  a  delicate  pearl-grey,  and  the  neck  is  almost 
surrounded  by  a  greenish  band,  the  same  colour  as  the 
back.  The  thighs  are  white,  with  small  spots  and 
lines  of  black  upon  them,  and  the  under  side  ol  the 
wings  is  coloured  in  the  same  way,  being  pure  white 
with  numerous  fine  lines.  The  under  side  of  the  long 
tail  is  also  white,  but  is  banded  by  broad  black  marks. 


HARPY  EAGLE 67 

The  most  striking  thing  about  the  Harpy  Eagle 
is  the  enormous  size  and  strength  of  the  feet  and 
claws,  the  latter  being  some  three  inches  in  length. 
The  legs  are  as  thick  as  the  wrist  of  a  man,  and  the 
claws  may  be  driven  through  the  thick  and  tough  hides 
of  sloths  and  monkeys,  which  are  its  principal  prey. 
Sailing  over  the  dense  forests  of  the  Amazon  country, 
it  drops  lightly  upon  an  unwary  sloth  or  monkey  that 
approaches  the  tops  of  the  trees.  It  is  also  said  to 
attack  larger  game,  such  as  deer.  The  head  of  this 
splendid  bird  is  adorned  by  a  crest  of  dark  greyish- 
brown  feathers  which  it  can  raise  and  lower  at  will. 
The  eye  is  a  beautiful  deep  grey,  and  the  bill  is  of  an 
ashy  hue.  Its  whole  appearance  is  martial  in  the 
extreme,  and  onelmight  easily  credit  to  this  bird  such 
stories  of  strength  and  courage  as  are  wrongly  at- 
tributed to  the  Bald  Eagle.  A  magnificent  specimen 
of  the  Harpy  Eagle  is  now  in  the  Washington  Zoo- 
logical Garden.  Brought  by  steamer  from  South 
America  to  New  York,  it  was  carried  through  the 
streets  of  the  city  in  an  open  cage,  but  instead  of  bat- 
tering itself  to  death  from  fright,  as  would  have  been 
the  case  with  most  wild  birds,  it  remained  quietly 
seated  on  its  perch,  gazing  fearlessly  at  the  throngs 
of  people  passing.  Since  its  confinement  in  Wash- 
ington, it  has  exhibited  the  same  indomitable  char- 
acter. It  always  seems  greatly  interested  in  visitors 
that  pass  by,  and  seated  upright  on  its  perch  will  turn 
its  head  quite  upside  down  as  it  gazes  at  some  particu- 
larly interesting  individual.  At  times  the  Harpy 
Eagle  utters  a  curious  faint  squeak,  quite  out  of  pro- 


68  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

portion  to  the  great  size  of  the  bird.  Little  is  known 
of  its  habits  in  the  wild  state,  but  it  is  said  to  nest  in 
the  tops  of  tall  trees,  like  most  members  of  the  Eagle 
family.  Individuals  of  this  species  are  rarely  seen  in 
captivity,  and  still  more  rarely  in  good  condition, 
being  usually  either  wing-broken  or  injured  so  that 
they  do  not  appear  to  good  advantage.  See  Plate 
42,  Fig.  241. 

The  Caracara  is  a  singular  Bird  of  Prey  found  only 
in  America,  one  species  being  somewhat  common  in 
our  Southern  States.  The  legs  and  wings  are  long, 
and  the  plumage  is  brown  and  white.  Though  nearly 
related  to  the  Vultures,  in  appearance  the  Caracara 
is  more  like  the  Falcons,  while  in  disposition  and  gen- 
eral habits  it  somewhat  resembles  the  Crows,  being 
both  inquisitive  and  offensive  in  its  demeanour  toward 
other  birds.  It  exhibits  much  intelligence  and  is 
easily  tamed.  A  captive  Caracara  in  the  same  cage 
with  a  Griffon  Vulture,  in  a  zoological  park,  was  ob- 
served one  day  suddenly  to  sail  over  the  larger  bird, 
grasp  it  by  the  top  of  the  head,  and  lift  it  completely 
from  its  perch.  Apparently  before  the  astonished 
Vulture  could  realise  what  had  happened,  the  Cara- 
cara was  skipping  proudly  about  in  a  distant  part  of 
the  cage.  This  bird  exhibited  great  curiosity,  and  was 
continually  pecking  at  the  artificial-rock  formation  in 
its  enclosure,  moving  about  from  place  to  place  with 
a  strange  hopping  gait.  While  extremely  restless, 
it  was  entirely  fearless.  See  Plate  42,  Fig.  242. 

It  has  been  said  that,  unlike  all  other  Birds  of  Prey 
of  this  class,  the  Caracara  is  unable  to  lift  anything 
from  the  ground  with  its  claws,  the  beak  being  always 


QSPREY 69 

used  instead,  although  when  well  clear  of  the  ground 
the  prey  is  dropped  and  dexterously  caught  in  the 
talons.  When  a  smaller  bird  is  pursued  and  captured 
in  the  air,  however,  the  claws  are  used,  as  with  other 
Hawks. 

The  cry  of  the  Caracara9  uttered  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, is  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other  bird,  having  a 
peculiar  clattering  sound.  The  position  assumed  in 
giving  utterance  to  it  is  also  unusual,  the  head  being 
thrown  sharply  backward  until  the  crown  touches  the 
middle  of  the  back. 

The  Falcons  form  a  group  by  themselves,  more  or 
less  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  Birds  of  Prey,  though 
the  characters  which  give  them  this  distinction  are 
mainly  anatomical.  Their  two  most  conspicuous  ex- 
ternal features  are  the  long,  pointed  form  of  the  wings, 
and  the  notch,  or  tooth,  near  the  tip  of  the  upper  jaw, 
or  mandible. 

The  Osprey,  or  Fish  Hawk,  is  by  some  naturalists 
regarded  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  true  Hawks 
and  Eagles  and  the  Owls,  because,  as  in  the  Owls,  the 
hind  toe  of  the  Osprey  is  reversible ;  that  is,  it  can  be 
turned  either  outwards  or  backwards.  See  Plate  2, 
Fig.  6. 

There  is  but  one  species  of  Osprey,  and  it  has  an 
almost  world-wide  distribution.  It  lives  entirely  on 
fish,  which  it  captures  by  a  sudden  dive  from  a  height, 
sending  up  a  shower  of  spray  as  it  plunges  into  the 
water  to  seize  its  victim.  Occasionally  it  will  drive 
its  talons  into  a  fish  too  large  to  be  lifted,  in  which  case 
the  Osprey,  unable  to  release  itself,  is  dragged  be- 
neath the  water  and  drowned.  On  order  to  hold  the 


70  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

slippery  prey  more  easily,  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
provided  with  numerous  rough  spines. 

It  is  a  large  bird,  about  two  feet  in  length,  with 
a  wing-spread  of  more  than  twice  as  much.  The  gen- 
eral colour  is  greyish,  or  brownish,  above,  the  under 
surface  white,  with  dark  spots.  The  colour,  however, 
varies  considerably  in  different  individuals. 

Living  as  it  does  exclusively  upon  fish,  the  nest  of 
the  Osprey  is  usually  built  near  the  water,  in  the  top 
of  a  tall  tree  or  an  old  building,  and  is  used  for  many 
years  in  succession.  Two  or  three  white  eggs 
blotched  with  brown  are  laid,  and  the  young  are  much 
darker  in  colour  than  the  adult  birds.  The  Osprey 
is  a  most  devoted  mate  and  parent.  This  bird  is  par- 
ticularly beautiful  and  graceful  in  flight. 

The  Kestrel  is  a  little  Falcon  that  is  still  quite  com- 
mon in  many  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  easily  recog- 
nised from  its  habits  of  hovering  in  the  air  on  quiver- 
ing wings,  always  facing  the  wind,  and  examining  the 
ground  with  keen  eyes  in  search  of  the  mice  and  insects 
upon  which  it  feeds.  As  with  the  Falcons  generally, 
it  builds  no  nest,  but  uses  those  that  have  been  deserted 
by  Crows  and  Magpies,  or  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
ground,  in  cliffs  or  in  hollow  trees.  See  Plate  3,  Fig. 
11. 

The  male  Kestrel  when  fully  adult  is  a  very  hand- 
some bird;  the  female  is  duller  in  hue,  with  back  and 
tail  closely  barred.  The  young,  as  is  so  often  the 
case  when  the  parents  differ  in  colour,  resemble  the 
female.  The  eggs,  as  with  all  the  Falcons,  are  very 
richly  coloured. 

The  place  of  the  European  Kestrel  is  taken  in  this 


5.  King  Vulture 
(Sartwhamphus  papa) 


7.  White  Gyrfalcon  (Fako  island™) 


8.  Golden  Eagle 
(Aquila  cfirysaStus). 


GYRFALCON—  DUCK  HAWK          71 

country  by  the  American  Sparrow  Hawk.  As  has 
been  said,  the  Sparrow  Hawk  of  Europe  is  quite  a 
different  species,  and  more  nearly  corresponds  to  our 
Sharp-shinned  Hawk  and  Cooper's  Hawk. 

The  American  Sparrow  Hawk  is  about  eleven 
inches  in  length,  and  the  sexes  are  quite  different  in 
colouration,  the  male  being  reddish  brown  above,  with 
a  few  black  marks,  wings  bluish  and  spotted,  with 
a  single  broad  black  band  across  the  tail,  while  the 
female  is  barred  over  the  whole  of  the  back,  streaked 
with  black  on  the  breast,  and  has  the  tail  crossed  with 
numerous  black  bars.  The  bill  is  dark  blue,  the  feet 
and  legs  are  yellow. 

This  beautiful  little  Hawk  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  North  America.  It  has  the  same  habit  as  the 
European  Kestrel  mentioned  above,  of  hovering  on 
swiftly  moving  wings  while  seeking  its  prey  of  mice 
and  smaller  birds.  It  builds  no  nest,  but  frequently 
usurps  that  of  the  Woodpecker. 

The  Greenland  Falcon,  or  Gyrfalcon,  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  this  group,  and  is  native  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  though  occasionally  found  further  south.  In 
the  old  days  when  the  sport  of  falconry  was  at  its 
height,  this  bird  was  the  most  highly  prized  of  all  the 
Falcons.  The  general  tone  of  the  plumage  is  pure 
white  relieved  by  black  markings.  Nearly  allied  to 
this  bird,  if  not  of  the  same  species,  is  the  Labrador 
Falcon,  but  it  is  at  once  distinguishable  by  the  very 
dark  colouring.  The  food  of  these  Falcons  consists 
of  Ptarmigan  and  Willow  Grouse,  varied  by  lem- 
mings and  other  small  mammals.  See  Plate  2,  Fig.  7. 

The  American  Duck  Hawk,  or  Peregrine  Falcon, 


72  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

in  many  ways  resembles  the  Gyrfalcon*  It  has  a  wide 
range  throughout  North  America  and  a  large  part  of 
South  America.  The  sexes  are  coloured  alike — blu- 
ish-slate above,  a  somewhat  lighter  tint  below,  the 
lower  part  of  the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the  legs 
barred  with  dark  colour.  The  under-surface  of  the 
wings  is  also  barred. 

The  Duck  Hawk  is  very  strong  and  swift  in  flight, 
and  very  fierce  and  aggressive  in  character.  It 
pounces  upon  its  prey  from  an  elevation,  easily  cap- 
turing such  fast-flying  birds  as  Wild  Ducks,  and  even 
attacking  Geese  when  pressed  by  hunger. 

From  the  Falcons  we  pass  to  the  Vultures,  a  group 
which  possesses  many  interesting  points  for  considera- 
tion. Vulture-like  birds  taken  as  a  whole  are  by  no 
means  all  closely  related  one  to  another.  Divided  into 
Old  and  New  World  Vultures,  the  latter  constitute  a 
very  ancient  family,  standing  apart  from  the  Hawks, 
Buzzards,  Eagles,  and  Falcons.  If  we  take  these  last 
as  representing  so  many  branches  of  a  common  stem, 
then  the  Vultures  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  simi- 
lar independent  stem,  both  arising,  however,  from  a 
single  trunk.  The  letter  Y  may  well  represent  this. 
The  different  kinds  of  Old  World  Vultures  may  be 
pictured  as  forming  so  many  branches  from  the  left- 
hand,  and  the  Hawks,  Buzzards,  Eagles,  and  Falcons 
as  so  many  branches  from  the  right-hand  branch  of 
the  Y,  the  stem  of  which  indicates  that  both  main 
branches  with  their  ramifications  came  from  the  same 
stock. 

The  New  World  Vultures,  however,  form  a  group 
by  themselves;  they  are  the  terminal  branches  of  a 


EGYPTIAN  VULTURE  73 

separate  trunk,  which  we  may  suppose  grew  out  from 
the  very  root  of  the  Y-shaped  tree.  They  may  at 
once  be  distinguished  from  all  other  birds  of  prey  by 
the  fact  that  the  nostrils  are  pierced  quite  through, 
whereas  in  the  rest  of  the  birds  of  prey  they  are  divided 
by  a  partition ;  further,  the  feet  and  claws  of  the  New 
World  forms  are  less  Hawk-like. 

Of  the  Old  World  Vultures,  three  very  interesting 
species  are  figured. 

The  smallest  members  of  this  family  are  the 
Egyptian  Vultures,  found  in  considerable  abundance 
in  the  Mediterranian  countries  and  in  Africa.  Though 
it  has  the  reputation  of  being  an  exceptionally  foul 
feeder,  this  bird  is  most  useful  in  removing  offensive 
matter  which  in  such  hot  climates  would  breed  disease. 
The  Egyptian  Scavenger  also  preys  upon  rats  and 
mice,  snakes,  lizards  and  even  insects.  See  Plate  1, 
Fig.  2. 

The  Griffon  Vulture  is  a  large  bird,  having  an  ex- 
treme length  of  about  three  feet  six  inches.  It  is 
common  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  particularly 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gibraltar,  nesting  in  colonies 
in  the  cliffs.  See  Plate  1,  Fig.  3. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  of  all  this  family  is 
the  Lammergeier,  or  Bearded  Vulture,  whose  range 
extends  through  Southern  Europe,  Central  Asia,  the 
north  of  Africa,  and  into  China.  Though  at  one  time 
frequently  met  with  in  Switzerland,  it  is  now  almost 
unknown  in  that  country.  It  is  the  largest  of  the 
Old  World  birds  of  prey.  See  Plate  1,  Fig.  4. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  about  this  bird 
is  the  brilliant  vermilion  colour  of  the  outer  coat  of 


74  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  eye — the  part  corresponding  to  the  whites  of 
human  eyes ;  the  rest  of  the  eye  is  golden  yellow  with 
a  black  pupil.  There  are  curious  tufts  of  stiff  feathers 
like  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  plumage  is 
brown  streaked  with  white. 

The  Lammergeier  is  very  powerful  in  flight, 
traversing  great  distances  in  search  of  its  food,  which 
consists  of  small  mammals  and  carrion.  Bones  ap- 
pear to  be  a  great  delicacy,  and  to  smash  these  the 
bird  is  said  to  drop  them  from  a  great  height  upon 
rocks  below. 

The  King  Vulture  of  the  New  World  is  a  wonder- 
ful bird  that  is  by  no  means  well  known.  It  receives 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  drives  away  from  a 
carcass  the  smaller  birds  of  prey  until  its  own  appetite 
is  sated.  It  is  found  in  the  higher  mountain  regions 
of  South  and  Central  America,  and  occasionally  comes 
as  far  north  as  Texas  and  Florida.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  features  of  the  male  is  the  curious  fleshy 
wattle  which  surrounds  the  beak,  while  the  bare  skin 
of  the  head  is  most  brilliantly  coloured  with  varying 
shades  of  orange,  purple,  crimson,  and  black.  The 
upper  parts  of  the  body  are  creamy  white,  the  long 
wing-  and  tail-feathers  black.  The  plumage  of  the 
female  is  much  less  conspicuous,  the  upper  parts  being 
dark  instead  of  white,  and  lacking  the  brilliant  colours 
on  the  head.  See  Plate  2,  Fig.  5. 

The  South  American  Condor  is  a  near  relative  of 
the  King  Vulture,  but  greatly  its  superior  in  size. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  the  succeeding  species, 
it  is  the  largest  of  all  Birds  of  Prey.  See  Plate  1, 
Fig.  1. 


1.  Condor 

(Swcoramphus 

gryphvx). 


?„  Egyptian  Vulture 
(Neophron  percnopterus). 


3.  Griffon  Vulture 
(Gyp,  fulvu,). 


4.  Lammergeier 

(GypaVtus  bar- 

batus). 


CALIFORNIA  CONDOR 75 

The  general  colour  is  ashy  grey,  with  considerable 
white  in  the  wings;  there  is  a  ruff  of  soft  white 
feathers,  or  down,  about  the  neck,  except  in  front,  and 
the  head  of  the  male  is  adorned  with  a  great  fleshy 
wattle  at  the  base  of  the  beak.  Condors  feed  upon 
carrion  mostly,  but  show  a  marked  liking  for  fresh 
meat  when  obtainable.  Apparently,  however,  they 
never  kill  for  themselves.  Like  other  Vultures,  they 
gorge  themselves  when  food  is  plentiful,  and  at  such 
times  are  often  taken  by  the  natives^  of  the  country 
by  means  of  lassos. 

The  California  Condor  equals,  if,  indeed,  it  does  not 
exceed  in  size  the  South  American  species.  In  gen- 
eral form  they  are  not  unlike,  but  the  more  northern 
bird  lacks  the  white  collar  about  the  neck,  having  in- 
stead a  ruff  of  dark,  pointed  feathers.  It  also  is  with- 
out the  curious  wattle  that  grows  from  the  top  of  the 
head  in  the  other  species.  The  plumage  is  generally 
ashy  grey  in  colour,  with  a  kind  of  bloom  over  it. 
The  feet  are  very  large.  These  birds  nest  in  high 
cliffs  along  the  coast  of  California.  The  young  birds 
are  clothed  in  pure  white  down,  which  gradually 
deepens  to  grey  as  they  grow  older. 

Owing  to  their  destruction  by  hunters,  and  to 
poison  set  out  by  sheep-herders  as  protection  against 
wolves,  these  birds  are  becoming  rare  in  the  regions 
where  they  were  formerly  common.  The  Condor  is 
absurdly  tame,  allowing  itself  to  be  approached  by 
man  even  when  at  large.  Fortunately,  it  thrives  in 
confinement,  largely  owing  to  its  lack  of  fear,  and  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  such  great  birds,  accustomed 
to  flying  over  vast  mountain  regions,  should  do  so 


76  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

well  and  keep  themselves  in  such  perfect  condition  in 
small  cages  often  not  more  than  six  feet  square.  It 
is  with  much  satisfaction  that  one  looks  at  this  mag- 
nificent bird,  seated  on  a  rock  or  tree  in  its  enclosure, 
absolutely  at  ease,  and  with  every  feather  lying 
smoothly  like  metal  plates  on  its  back. 

The  Turkey  Vulture,  or  Turkey  Buzzard,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  has  rather  an  extensive  range  in 
America,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  not  found  farther  north 
than  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon in  the  region  of  the  city  of  Washington  and 
farther  south.  In  general  appearance  it  somewhat 
resembles  a  hen  Turkey,  the  skin  of  the  head  and  neck 
being  of  a  reddish  colour  blotched  with  white.  The 
plumage  is  rusty  black  in  colour,  the  under-surface 
of  the  wings  a  light  grey,  the  bill  whitish.  The  feet 
and  legs  are  red.  The  eye  is  bright  and  piercing  and 
quite  intelligent  in  expression.  See  Plate  41,  Fig. 
243. 

These  birds  are  extremely  useful  in  ridding  the 
ground  of  fetid  matter  that  would  otherwise  pollute 
the  air,  and  consequently  they  are  rigidly  protected. 
They  are  almost  exclusively  carrion-eaters,  although 
like  other  Vultures  they  will  eat  fresh  meat  when  ob- 
tainable. Their  sight  is  remarkably  keen,  and  they 
are  often  seen  flying  over  wooded  or  marshy  country, 
seeking  with  their  sharp  eyes  for  the  carcasses  of 
animals.  After  these  birds  have  eaten  heavily,  they 
sit,  like  the  Old  World  Vultures,  in  a  drooping  atti- 
tude, with  wings  hanging  listlessly  at  their  sides. 
The  object  of  this  is  probably  to  air  and  cleanse  the 
feathers,  but  when  in  this  position  they  have  a  most 
depressing  effect  upon  the  observer. 


BLACK  VULTURE  77 

These  birds  are  strong  and  beautiful  flyers,  soaring 
in  the  air  for  hours  at  a  time  without  flapping  their 
wings.  When  rising  from  the  ground,  however,  or 
starting  from  a  tree,  they  flap  heavily  several  times 
in  order  to  gain  momentum  for  flight,  but  once  on 
the  wing  they  rise  and  fall  without  perceptible  motion 
of  the  wings.  Owing  to  the  rather  flimsy  character 
of  the  feathers,  the  Turkey  Buzzard  has  a  wobbly  or 
teetering  appearance  when  a  puff  of  wind  strikes  it. 
But  this  effect  is  of  course  more  apparent  than  real, 
as  by  a  single  stroke  of  the  wings  the  bird  regains 
its  equilibrium  and  sails  gracefully  on  in  an  undu- 
lating course.  Although  living  in  the  vicinity  of 
human  habitations,  it  is  always  a  shy  and  wary  bird. 

In  the  far  Southern  States  the  Turkey  Vulture's 
reign  is  disputed  by  that  of  the  Black  Vulture,  some- 
times called  Carrion  Crow  by  the  natives  of  that 
region.  In  form  it  is  somewhat  similar,  but  is  more 
compact,  and  the  feathers  are  richer  and  more  glossy 
in  tone.  The  colour  is  a  deep  black,  almost  blue,  and 
slightly  iridescent  like  that  of  the  Crow.  It  is  a 
stronger  flyer  than  the  Turkey  Vulture,  the  primaries 
of  the  wings  being  much  stiffer,  and  on  occasions  it 
rises  so  high  as  to  become  a  mere  speck  in  the  air, 
wheeling  in  great  circles  over  the  region  it  inhabits. 
It  is  more  common  in  the  Southern  States  than  the 
other  species,  and  in  the  streets  of  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  may  be  seen  in  great  numbers  gathered 
about  the  slaughter-houses  and  greedily  devouring  the 
offal  thrown  out  from  them.  Unlike  the  Turkey  Vul- 
ture, it  is  extremely  tame,  allowing  itself  to  be  closely 
approached  without  taking  alarm. 


T 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  FOWL-LIKE  BIRDS 
ORDER— GALLIFORME  S 

HIS  Order  includes  an  enormous  number  of 
birds,  more  or  less  nearly  related  to  each  other. 
In  certain  groups,  common  anatomical  char- 
acters are  apparent  externally  in  the  form  of  beak  and 
legs,  and  in  the  general  shape  of  wings  and  body.  In 
all,  the  upper  portion  of  the  beak  is  curved  and  com- 
pletely overlaps  the  lower ;  wbilp  th^  .l^gs  ha.vp  strong 
toes  and  short,  blunt  claws,  forming  admirable  dig- 
ging and  scratching  tools.  As  a  rule,  the  Gallina- 
ceous or  Fowl-like  birds  have  legs_complet£ly-CQYered 
with  scales  and  armed  with  a  pair  of  powerful  spurs ; 
but  some  have  very  short  legs,  feather-clad,  and  with- 
out spurs. 

These  birds  are  divided  into  two  great  groups — 
one  in  which  the  hind-toe  is  on  a  level  with  the  other 
toes,. and  the  other  in  which  the  hind-toe  is  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  rest.  To  the  former  belong  the  curious 
Mound-birds,  or  Megapodes,  of  Australia,  and  the 
equally  curious  Curassows  and  Guans  of  America,  all 
others  belonging  to  the  group  which  has  thejhind-tqe 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  other  toes.  In  both  sections 

78 


CUR  AS  SOW— TURKEY  79 

~  \X 


the  young  are  hatched  clothed  in  down,  and  are  able 
to  run-about  immediately  after  leaving  the  shell. 

The  Mound-birds  have  very  large,  strong  feet,  and 
with  them  they  throw  up  huge  mounds  of  earth  and 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  in  which  they  deposit  their 
eggs,  digging  holes  for  their  reception  a  number  of 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  male  bird 
is  said  to  assist  the  female  in  making  these  mounds, 
but  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  apparently  no  further  at- 
tention is  paid  to  them  by  the  parents,  and  they  are 
hatched  by  the  heat  generated  in  the  decaying  vegeta- 
tion. But  little  appears  to  be  known  about  the  habits 
of  these  strange  birds. 

The  Curassows  are  somewhat  Turkey-like  in  form. 
They  are  forest-loving  birds,  nesting  in  trees,  and  are 
found  in  the  tropical  portions  of  America.  There  are 
many  species.  Perhaps  the  commonest  is  the  Globose 
Curassow,  which  is  frequently  seen  in  captivity.  It 
is  almost  black  in  colour,  with  greenish  iridescence  on 
the  back  and  breast,  and  has  a  large  crest.  These 
birds  go  about  in  flocks,  and  perch  high  up  in  the 
branches  of  trees,  where  they  build  their  roughly- 
shaped  nests.  See  Plate  41,  Fig.  244. 

The  only  species  of  Guan  known  in  North  Amer- 
ica is  the  Chacalacca,  so  called  from  its  cry.  In  the 
Guans  the  bill  is  longer  and  wider  than  in  the  true 
Curassows.  The  two  forms  are  closely  related,  but 
the  Guans  are  more  solitary  in  habits.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  bare,  bright  red  skin  of  the  throat, 
which  may  be  expanded  at  will. 

The  largest  of  the  Gallinaceous  birds  is  the  Turkey, 
native  to  North  and  South  America.  It  is  one  of  the 


80  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

oldest  types  of  the  Order  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
Mexican  Wild  Turkey  is  the  species  from  which  our 
domestic  Turkeys  are  descended.  Among  the  many 
remarkable  features  of  the  male  Turkey  are  the  curi- 
ous tuft  of  hair-like  feathers  attached  to  the  breast, 
the  bare  and  brilliantly  coloured  head  and  neck,  and 
the  long,  fleshy,  finger-like  appendage,  or  wattle, 
hanging  down  over  the  beak,  that  can  be  increased  in 
size  at  will.  This  bird  is  very  large,  individuals  some- 
times weighing  as  much  as  thirty-five  pounds.  See 
Plate  27,  Fig.  155. 

The  actions  of  the  Turkey-cock  when  "strutting" 
are  very  remarkable.  The  head  is  drawn  sharply 
backward,  the  wings  dropped,  the  tail  spread  like  a 
great  wheel,  a  deep  reddish  colour  suffusing  the  naked 
skin  of  the  neck  and  head,  and  the  stiff  primaries  of 
the  wings  drawn  along  the  ground  with  a  sound  like 
distant  thunder. 

The  male  Turkey  is  irascible  in  disposition,  easily 
excited  to  anger,  and  very  aggressive.  There  are 
many  instances  of  children  having  been  injured  by 
these  great  birds,  whose  size  and  weight  render  them 
formidable. 

The  hen  Turkey  is  not  so  large  as  her  mate,  and  is 
not  so  brilliantly  coloured.  She  is  extremely  wary 
and  suspicious,  especially  when  she  has  to  protect  her 
young — ungainly-looking  little  creatures,  with  long 
necks  and  long  legs.  They  are  able  to  walk  for  many 
miles,  the  mother  seeming  to  delight  in  taking  long 
pilgrimages  in  search  of  new  feeding-grounds. 

When  wild,  the  Mexican  Turkey  is  extremely  shy 
and  ever  on  the  alert,  and  the  sportsman  who  can  add 
one  of  these  great  birds  to  his  game-bag  may  justly 


155. 

Turkey 

(Meleagris 

gallopavo). 


156.  Domestic  Cock 

and  Hen 
(Oallua  gaily*)  var.J. 


TURKEY— GUINEA-FOWL  81 

feel  proud  of  his  achievement,  for  it  is  only  by  the 
shrewdest  strategy  that  he  can  approach  within  shoot- 
ing distance. 

Closely  related  to  the  preceding  form,  although  dif- 
fering in  some  minor  particulars,  is  the  Eastern  Wild 
Turkey,  which,  in  consequence  of  much  hunting,  is  be- 
coming very  rare.  The  colour  of  this  bird  is  some- 
what darker,  in  general,  than  that  of  the  Mexican 
variety,  and  it  lacks  the  light  colour  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  tail.  It  is  a  finer  and  trimmer  bird  than 
the  domesticated  species,  but  in  captivity  would  no 
doubt  soon  acquire  the  over-developed  and  heavy  form 
of  the  other.  Another  very  beautiful  variety  is  the 
Honduras  Turkey. 

The  Guinea-fowl  is  a  native  of  Africa.  It  is  L 
easily  domesticated,  and  is  commonly  seen  in  our 
farmyards.  This  bird  is  almost  reptilian  in  certain 
characters.  In  walking,  the  back  is  much  arched,  the 
head  dropped  low,  almost  touching  the  ground,  and 
at  a  distance  a  flock  of  them  looks  not  unlike  quickly 
moving  tortoises.  See  Plate  27,  Fig.  154. 

The  colour  pattern  of  the  plumage  is  quite  wonder- 
ful. The  body  tone  is  a  delicate  grey,  and  each 
feather  is  covered  with  numerous  pure  white  dots, 
making  a  most  complete  and  intricate  design.  The 
naked  skin  around  the  eye  is  white,  and  the  wattle  at 
the  base  of  the  bill  and  the  under-throat  are  a  bright 
red.  The  Guinea-fowl  is  a  very  restless  bird,  con- 
tinually moving  about  and  uttering  its  monotonous 
cry — one  that  is  apt  to  "get  on  the  nerves"  when 
listened  to  for  hours  at  a  time.  On  account  of  their 
alertness,  Guineas  are  often  kept  by  farmers  as  guar- 


82  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

dians  of  their  poultry ;  at  the  slightest  sound  they  raise 
their  voices  and  often  give  warning  of  the  approach  of 
a  Hawk.  The  flesh  is  dark  in  colour,  and  has  a  strong, 
gamey  taste. 

Besides  the  species  represented,  there  are  numerous 
others  known  to  science.  Perhaps  the  most  beautiful 
is  the  Vulturine  Guinea-fowl,  in  which  the  grey  colour 
is  replaced  by  a  delicate  blue,  and  the  feathers  are 
very  long. 

The  (Pheasant <tribe  include  some  of  the  most  bril- 
liantly coloured  b^rds  in  existence.  They  are  natives 
of  China  and  India,  some  species  extending  into  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  best-known  Pheasants  to  the  Western  world 
are  the  Common  and  Ring-necked  Pheasants  of 
Europe.  Fossil  remains  show  that  they  at  one  time 
lived  wild  in  Europe,  and  the  present  species  may 
have  descended  from  these;  but  it  is  more  likely  that 
they  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Romans. 
The  so-called  Common  Pheasant,  the  species  figured, 
is  now  very  rare,  because  it  has  interbred  with  other 
species  which  have  been  allowed  to  run  wild.  But 
the  Ring-necked  Pheasant  is  the  principal  game-bird 
of  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe,  being  kept 
in  large  parks,  or  preserves,  and  shot  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year.  The  eggs  are  usually  placed  under 
domestic  hens,  as  they  are  considered  better  mothers 
than  the  female  Pheasants.  Great  care  is  taken  of 
the  young  birds  in  order  to  bring  them  to  maturity. 
See  Plate  26,  Fig.  150. 

The  male  Ring-necked  Pheasant  is  rich  and  pleas- 
ing in  colour,  a  splendid  golden  tone  covering  the 


GOLDEN  PHEASANT  83 

whole  body,  the  feathers  arranged  like  scales.  Around 
the  neck  is  a  pure  white  ring,  and  the  skin  about  the 
eye  is  a  brilliant  red.  The  females  are  much  duller  in 
hue,  although  they  have  some  beautiful  feathers. 

These  birds  have  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  country,  notably  in 
Oregon,  they  have  multiplied  to  an  extraordinary  ex- 
tent. The  flesh  is  highly  prized.  The  Pheasant  is 
not  a  satisfactory  bird  to  keep  in  close  confinement, 
as  it  never  loses  its  extreme  shyness,  and  is  apt  to  in- 
jure itself  by  flying  against  the  bars  of  its  cage. 

The  most  brilliantly  coloured  member  of  this  family 
is  the  Golden  Pheasant,  a  native  of  China.  On  ac- 
count of  its  resplendent  plumage  it  is  usually  seen  in 
collections.  It  is  impossible  to  give  any  adequate  idea 
of  the  brilliance  of  the  feathers,  which  glisten  as  if 
illuminated  from  beneath,  and  the  various  plates,  bars, 
and  scales  arranged  over  the  body  of  the  bird  make 
it  seem  as  if  clothed  in  armour.  A  study  of  the  figure 
of  the  Golden  Pheasant  will  do  more  than  words  to 
indicate  this  remarkable  colouration.  The  male  has 
the  ability  to  spread  out  the  long  neck-feathers  into 
a  wide,  circular  cape.  See  Plate  25,  Fig.  146. 

The  Silver  Pheasant  is  another  form  commonly  seen 
in  aviaries.  It  is  now  rare  in  a  wild  state,  and  little 
is  known  of  its  habits,  except  in  confinement.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  body  is  white,  covered  with  fine 
black  lines;  the  breast  is  dark,  and  the  long  tail- 
feathers  are  white.  See  Plate  26,  Fig.  151. 

The  Impeyan  Pheasant  is  probably  the  most  bril- 
liant of  all  iridescent  birds,  the  colours  ranging 
through  the  spectrum  from  orange  to  yellow.  The 


84  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

head  and  neck  are  greenish,  the  back  a  shining  purp- 
lish-blue, with  red  and  green  iridescence.  Across  the 
tail  is  a  wide  band  of  pure  white,  the  tail  itself  being 
brownish,  barred  with  darker  colour. 

Other  well-known  species  of  Pheasant  are  the 
Reeves  and  the  Lady  Amherst. 

But  the  largest,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  con- 
spicuous, of  this  family  is  the  Argus  Pheasant,  a 
native  of  the  Indo-Malay  Peninsula.  It  is  remark- 
able for  the  enormous  length  of  the  inner  flight- 
feathers  of  the  wings,  while  the  tail-feathers  are  also 
extremely  long.  But  it  is  not  so  much  the  great 
length  as  the  wonderful  and  complicated  pattern  on 
them  that  makes  them  so  extraordinary.  Large  eye- 
like  marks  are  placed  at  regular  intervals  along  the 
main  shafts,  so  wonderfully  shaded  as  to  look  like  balls 
lying  loose  within  sockets,  with  a  wonderful  network 
of  spots  and  lines  about  them.  The  colours  are  rich 
brown  and  white.  When  the  male  bird  displays,  he 
raises  and  spreads  his  wings  so  that  they  form  a  great 
circle  over  his  back,  the  wings  being  raised  at  the  same 
time.  See  Plate  26,  Figs.  152,  153. 

Perhaps  the  crowning  glory  of  this  family  is  the 
Peacock,  a  native  of  India,  and  one  of  the  most  mar- 
vellously coloured  of  all  the  feathered  tribe.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished at  once  by  its  long  train  of  feathers,  which 
drag  on  the  ground  when  the  bird  is  walking.  Each 
of  these  is  a  gem  in  itself,  being  finished  at  the  tip  by 
a  large  expanded  web,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
huge  eye-like  form.  In  a  mass  they  seem  to  shimmer 
and  glow  with  all  the  prismatic  colours — red  in  some 
lights,  green  and  gold  in  others.  The  "eyes"  are  a 


26. 


151.  Silver  rneasant  (Gennceus  nycthemerus). 


150.  European  Pheasant 
(Pkaxianus  colchicus). 


PEACOCK— FOWLS  85 

beautiful  blue.  The  Peacock  is  a  very  graceful  bird, 
the  neck  long  and  slender,  the  head  surmounted  by  a 
most  beautiful  and  delicate  crown,  or  crest,  of  fine 
lace-like  feathers.  Most  of  the  body  is  a  deep  rich 
blue,  in  texture  like  the  finest  velvet,  and  shading 
almost  to  black  upon  the  breast  and  upper  parts  of 
the  legs.  The  upper .  feathers  are  a  delicate  grey, 
covered  with  fine  dark  lines,  while  the  stiff  and  long 
flight-feathers  are  a  light  reddish-brown,  and  not 
iridescent  as  are  the  other  feathers.  It  is  only  when  the 
Peacock  flies,  or  stretches  its  wings,  that  these  red 
feathers  become  visible ;  at  other  times  they  are  folded 
closely  against  the  back.  See  Plate  25,  Figs.  148, 
149. 

When  displaying,  the  Peacock  raises  its  gorgeous 
train — which,  of  course  are  not  the  true  tail-feathers- 
over  its  back  in  a  half  circle,  and  spreads  it  to  the 
fullest  extent. 

Although  so  magnificent  in  plumage,  the  Peacock 
is  not  a  singer,  its  voice  being  extremely  harsh  and 
disagreeable,  and  sounding  not  unlike  the  magnified 
"meow"  of  a  cat. 

These  birds  are  easily  domesticated,  and  become 
very  tame,  and  it  is  only  because  they  are  so  common 
that  their  beauty  is  not  more  appreciated. 

The  nearly  related  Javan  Peacock  differs  from  the 
common  species  chiefly  in  having  neck-feathers  of 
enormous  size,  so  that  the  neck  has  the  appearance  of 
being  clothed  in  large,  overlapping  scales. 

Our  domesticated  Fowls  are  really  near  relations 
of  the  Pheasants.  They  are  supposed  to  have  de- 
scended from  the  wild  Jungle- fowls  of  India,  and  by 


86  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

careful  breeding  for  centuries  man  has  produced  from 
this  bird  many  remarkable  varieties.  Indeed,  the 
Leghorn  and  the  Game-fowls  retain  much  of  the 
original  character  of  the  Jungle-fowl,  although  in 
them,  as  well  as  in  most  other  domestic  breeds,  the 
comb  and  wattles  are  much  more  developed.  The 
cocks  of  the  Game-fowls  are  used  for  fighting,  and 
for  many  years,  in  England  and  in  other  countries, 
they  were  regularly  bred  and  trained  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  largest  of  the  domestic  Fowls  are  the 
Brahmins  and  the  Cochin  Chinas.  The  latter  breed 
was  introduced  into  England  about  1850,  and  soon 
was  in  great  demand,  the  eggs  bringing  very  high 
prices.  Perhaps  the  best-known  breed  in  this  country 
is  the  Plymouth  Rock,  a  large,  heavily  made  fowl, 
curiously  mottled  with  grey  and  white.  Among  the 
most  beautiful  are  the  silver-speckled  and  golden- 
speckled  Hamburgs.  Polish-fowls  are  distinguished 
by  their  large  topknot  of  long  feathers,  which  fall 
down  over  the  eyes  like  the  hair  of  a  sky-terrier,  in 
some  cases  almost  blinding  them.  In  Japan  for  many 
hundreds  of  years  has  been  bred  a  curious  species 
called  the  Long-tailed  Fowl,  in  which  the  abnormally 
lengthened  tail-feathers  sometimes  measure  as  much 
as  twenty  feet.  These  feathers  are  sometimes  kept 
carefully  wrapped  in  paper  to  protect  them  from  in- 
jury. See  Plate  27,  Fig.  156. 

Domestic  Fowls  have  a  great  variety  of  calls,  or 
notes,  which  any  one  may  soon  learn  to  interpret. 
The  cluck  of  the  mother  hen  when  she  takes  her  chicks 
out  to  hunt  for  food;  the  peculiar  sound  known  as 
"singing,"  in  which  she  indulges  after  having  been 


25. 


146.  Golden  Pheasant,  Male 
(Chrysolophus  pietus). 


r^  147. 

Golden  Pheasant 
Female. 


145.  Greek  partridge  (Caccabis  .aaxatUu). 


149.  Peahen. 


EUROPEAN  PARTRIDGE— QUAIL     87 

fed  and  in  fine  weather,  the  "cackle"  that  follows  the 
laying  of  an  egg;  the  cry  of  warning  that  instantly 
brings  her  chicks  to  cover  under  her  wings  when  a 
Hawk  appears  overhead — are  all  familiar  sounds  of 
the  poultry-yard.  The  "crow"  of  the  cock,  usually 
given  when  he  goes  to  roost  at  night,  early  in  the 
morning,  and  after  he  has  gained  a  victory  over  an- 
other cock,  is  also  well  known. 

Although  originally  from  warm  climates,  domestic 
Fowls  are  able  to  withstand  very  low  temperature, 
especially  if  protected  from  severe  winds  and  from 
dampness. 

Between  the  Pheasant  tribe  and  the  Partridges  and 
Quails  of  the  Old  World  there  is  no  very  sharp 
division.  True  Partridges  and  Quails  are  not  met 
with  in  America,  but  they  are  represented  by  birds 
that  closely  resemble  them  in  many  particulars. 

The  Common  Partridge  of  Europe  is  also  some- 
times called  the  Horse-shoe  Partridge,  from  a  horse- 
shoe-like mark  on  the  breast  in  both  sexes.  The 
female  may  always  be  distinguished  by  the  buff  cross- 
bars on  the  smaller  wing-coverts.  In  eastern  Siberia 
this  bird  is  replaced  by  the  Bearded  Partridge,  in 
which  the  throat  is  decorated  with  long  beard-like 
feathers.  See  Plate  24,  Fig.  144. 

The  Common  Red-legged  Partridge  ranges  over 
southwestern  and  western  Europe  and  Great  Britain. 

The  Red-legged  Rock  Partridge  is  a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  southern  Europe,  from  the  Pyrenees 
to  the  Balkans,  and  differs  from  the  Common  Euro- 
pean Partridge  in  the  absence  of  white  on  the  flanks 


88  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

and  of  black  spots  on  the  chest.  See  Plate  25,  Fig. 
145. 

Quails  are  frequently  described  as  miniature  Par- 
tridges, and  the  two  families  are  very  closely  related. 
The  Common  European  Quail  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  These  birds  migrate 
in  the  spring  in  vast  numbers  from  Africa  to  various 
parts  of  Europe,  and  this  is  the  season  for  hunting 
them.  The  European  Quail  has  been  imported  into 
the  United  States,  but  has  failed  to  thrive  in  this 
country.  See  Plate  24,  Fig.  141. 

Their  place  here  is  taken  by  the  Grouse  and  the  Bob 
White,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  In  the 
northern  States  the  Grouse  is  called  "Partridge";  in 
the  southern  States  the  same  bird  is  called  a  "Pheas- 
ant." The  Bob  White  of  the  North  is  known  as 
"Quail,"  while  in  the  South  it  is  termed  "Partridge." 
But,  as  has  been  said,  there  are  no  true  Partridges 
and  Quails  in  America. 

The  Ruffed  Grouse  is  a  large  bird,  measuring 
nearly  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  its  plumage  is 
a  mixture  of  greys,  browns,  and  buffs.  On  the  neck 
of  the  male  are  long,  purplish-black  feathers  capable 
of  being  erected.  This  is  the  principal  Game-bird  of 
our  Eastern  States.  Its  home  is  in  the  dense  coverts 
of  the  woods,  and  so  closely  does  it  resemble  the 
ground  colour  and  dead  leaves  that  it  is  impossible 
to  see  a  flock  until  it  takes  flight.  The  suddenness 
with  which  they  start  from  the  ground  is  very  startling 
and  disconcerting  to  a  novice  at  shooting.  They 
spring  into  the  air  with  a  loud  whirring  sound  and 
fly  so  rapidly  that  they  are  almost  instantly  lost  to 


24. 


138. 

Capercailzie)  Male 
(Tetrao  urogallus). 


139.       \ 
Capercailzie, 
Female. 


142.  Black  Cock 
(Lyruru*  tetrvt)* 


140.  Hazel  Grouse 
(Tetrastes  bonasia). 


European  Quail 
(Coturnix  coturnixj.     \ 

M 


143.  Alpine  Ptarmigan  fLaaovus  mutw). 


144.  European 
•Cartridge 
(Perdix  perdix). 


GROUSE— PTARMIGAN  89 

view.  In  winter  scales  grow  out  from  the  sides  of 
the  toes,  enabling  the  bird  to  walk  on  soft  snow. 

In  the  spring  the  male  Ruffed  Grouse  goes  through 
with  the  curious  performance  known  as  "drumming." 
Standing  upon  some  convenient  log,  he  raises  his  tail 
to  the  fullest  extent  and  spreads  out  the  ruffs  at  the 
sides  of  his  neck,  at  the  same  time  beating  the  air  with 
his  wings,  quickening  the  strokes  until  they  move  with 
lightning-like  rapidity,  producing  a  curious  rumbling 
sound  much  like  that  of  a  drum.  This  is  done  for 
the  edification  of  his  mate,  who  stands  watching  the 
performance  with  apparent  indifference. 

The  Pinnated  and  the  Sharp-tailed  Grouse  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  Middle  West,  and  the 
name  "Prairie  Chicken"  is  somewhat  vaguely  ap- 
plied to  both  in  different  sections.  These  birds,  too, 
have  singular  actions  at  the  mating  season,  at  such 
times  inflating  and  exhausting  the  large  orange- 
coloured  sacs  at  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  raising  the 
tail  high  over  the  back. 

Other  well-known  species  are  the  Sage  Grouse,  a 
very  large  form,  but  one  whose  flesh  is  not  especially 
prized,  the  Canada  Grouse,  and  the  Dusky  Grouse, 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Ptarmigan  is  another  species  of  the  Grouse 
family  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  America  and 
Europe.  This  bird  has  a  most  remarkable  system  of 
protective  colouration  adapted  to  each  season  of  the 
year.  In  winter,  when  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  the  plumage  is  white ;  as  spring  approaches,  this 
is  gradually  replaced  by  a  brownish  coat,  which  is 
worn  until  the  autumn,  when  the  moult  again  takes 


90  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

place  and  the  bird  becomes  a  mixture  of  brown  and 
white,  this  gradually  giving  place  to  the  winter  coat 
of  snow-white.  Thus  the  Ptarmigan  is  at  all  seasons 
practically  invisible  in  its  environment.  This  and 
other  species  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  tame- 
ness,  allowing  themselves  to  be  closely  approached  and 
actually  touched  without  taking  flight.  Whether  this 
character  is  due  to  lack  of  fear  or  stupidity  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say,  but  it  is  one  that  is  certainly  not  shared  by 
its  near  relative,  the  Ruffed  Grouse.  See  Plate  24, 
Fig.  143. 

The  Willow  Ptarmigan  is  also  found  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  both  continents. 

Largest  of  the  Game-birds  of  Europe  is  the  Caper- 
cailzie, or  Cock  of  the  Woods,  also  belonging  to  the 
Grouse  family.  At  one  time  common  in  Great 
Britain,  it  became  extinct,  but  of  late  years  has  been 
reintroduced  into  Scotland,  where  it  is  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  It  is  not  an  inhabitant  of  Amer- 
ica. This  is  a  woodland  bird,  living  in  trees,  and  in 
this  respect  unlike  most  other  Game-birds,  which  seem 
to  prefer  the  ground.  The  males  go  through  with 
many  curious  performances  during  the  breeding  sea- 
son, when  they  are  so  engrossed  as  to  be  unconscious 
of  the  approach  of  enemies,  and  are  often  shot  down. 
The  female  is  smaller  than  her  mate,  and  quite  dull  in 
colour.  See  Plate  24,  Figs.  138,  139. 

The  Black  Grouse  is  a  particularly  handsome  bird, 
remarkable  for  the  curious  shape  of  its  tail,  which  is 
divided  in  the  middle,  the  feathers  curving  to  right 
and  left,  like  hooks.  There  is  a  brilliant  red  skin 


BOB  WHITE— GAMBEL'S  PARTRIDGE  91 

around  the  eye,  as  in  some  of  the  Pheasants.  See 
Plate  24,  Fig.  142. 

The  Hazel-hen  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  northern 
and  central  Asia,  and  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed  for 
food.  It  bears  some  resemblance  to  our  own  Ruffed 
Grouse.  See  Plate  24,  Fig.  140. 

The  Bob  White  has  well  been  called  the  king  of  our 
American  Game-birds.  It  is  small,  about  ten  inches  in 
length,  and  the  plumage  renders  it  extremely  incon- 
spicuous, when  on  the  ground.  The  male  has  a  white 
throat  and  a  white  stripe  over  the  eye;  the  top  of  the 
head  is  reddish,  varied  with  black  and  white;  the  back 
and  wings  are  a  mixture  of  delicate  greys  and  browns ; 
the  lower  parts  are  yellowish- white,  crossed  with  deli- 
cate lines  of  black ;  a  black  mark  encircles  the  white  of 
the  throat;  the  flanks  are  reddish,  barred  with  black; 
the  upper  part  of  the  tail  is  bluish-grey.  The  sexes 
are  similarly  coloured,  except  that  the  female  has  more 
yellow  in  the  plumage. 

Bob  Whites  live  more  in  open  country  than  the 
Grouse,  run  in  large  flocks,  and  when  flushed  fly  in 
different  directions.  Their  speed  is  not  so  great  as 
that  of  the  larger  Game-bird.  When  alarmed,  Bob 
Whites  "lie  close"  on  the  ground,  instead  of  rising  in 
the  air,  trusting  to  their  colouring  to  remain  invisible. 
Setters  and  pointers,  dogs  having  remarkably  keen 
scent,  are  trained  to  hunt  these  birds,  advancing  slowly 
upon  a  covey  until  it  rises  with  a  great  whirring  of  the 
short,  rounded  wings.  These  dogs  are  trained  to  drop 
at  the  sound  of  a  gun,  and  then  to  retrieve,  or  bring 
back  to  their  master  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  injure 
them,  the  birds  that  have  been  shot. 


92  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

In  the  West  are  found  several  species  of  "Par- 
tridge," some  of  great  beauty.  One  called  Gambel's 
Partridge  has  the  upper  parts  of  the  neck  and  back 
a  plicate  fawn  colour,  the  breast  being  somewhat 
lighter.  In  the  middle  of  the  breast  is  a  large,  irregu- 
lar blackish  patch  of  feathers.  The  sides  are  a  rich 
reddish-brown,  streaked  with  pure  white.  The  most 
striking  feature  of  this  bird  is  the  long,  forward  pro- 
jecting crest  of  black  feathers,  normally  drooping 
over  the  bill.  The  top  of  the  head  is  reddish,  and  the 
feathers  are  very  soft  and  velvety  in  texture.  The 
face  and  under  part  of  the  throat  are  deep  black,  the 
eyes  very  dark  brown,  and  around  the  face  is  a  narrow 
line  of  pure  white.  The  feathers  of  the  body  are 
rounded,  and  have  much  the  appearance  of  scales. 
See  Plate  41,  Fig.  245. 

The  California  Partridge  is  quite  similar  in  colour- 
ing to  the  Gambel,  and  has  also  a  forward  curving 
crest  of  black  feathers.  Other  Western  species  are 
the  Scaled  Partridge,  the  Mountain  Partridge,  and 
the  Plumed  Partridge. 


248.     Hermit-thrush 
(Hylocichla  guttata  pallasi). 


245.     Crested  Seriema 
(Cariama  cristata). 


247.     Mocking-bird 
(Mimus  polyglottus). 


241.     Harpy-eagle 
^(Thrasaetus  harpyia). 


242.    Audubon's  Caracara 
(Polyborw  cherivay). 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CRANES,  RAILS,  AND  BUSTARDS 
ORDER— GRUIFORMES 

CRANES,  Rails,  and  Bustards,  though  very  dif- 
ferent in  external  appearance,  are  really 
closely  related.  Cranes  and  Rails  are  marsh 
birds,  while  Bustards  frequent  sandy  wastes;  Cranes 
are  wading  birds,  but  Rails  swim  and  dive  with  ease. 
All  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  the  diet  of  Cranes  and 
Rails  is  varied  by  insects  and  molluscs,  such  as  snails, 
slugs,  and  worms,  and  Bustards  also  eat  small  mam- 
mals, such  as  mice,  and  reptiles. 

The  Common  European  Crane  is  a  large  and  very 
beautiful  bird,  measuring  about  four  feet  in  length. 
In  Cranes  the  windpipe,  instead  of  running  straight 
down  the  neck  to  the  lungs,  passes  first  into  a  large 
chamber  in  the  keel  of  the  breast-bone.  After  form- 
ing a  coil  or  loop  there,  it  emerges  and  passes  back- 
wards to  the  lungs.  By  the  increase  in  length  thus 
gained,  an  extremely  loud  and  resonant  voice  is  pro- 
duced. See  Plate  29,  Fig.  161. 

These  birds  have  long  legs  and  long  necks,  and  are 
not  unlike  Herons  in  general  appearance,  although 
the  form  of  the  head,  as  well  as  the  colouration,  differs 
in  different  species.  But  three  out  of  the  fifteen  or 
more  existing  species  of  Cranes  are  found  in  America. 

93 


94  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  Whooping  Crane  winters  in  the  Gulf  States, 
but  breeds  farther  north.  It  is  a  large  white  bird, 
with  primaries,  bill,  and  legs,  black,  top  of  head  and 
sides  of  throat  red. 

The  Sandhill  Crane  is  a  smaller  form  also  found 
in  the  Southern  States,  especially  in  the  pine  barrens 
of  Florida,  some  distance  inland  from  the  coast.  The 
body  colour  is  a  beautiful  bluish-grey,  the  top  of  the 
head  a  soft,  deep  red.  The  bill  of  Cranes  is  used  both 
as  a  digging  instrument  and  a  weapon  of  defence,  and 
with  it  they  also  make  a  strange  clattering  noise,  when 
excited.  The  Sandhill  digs  enormous  holes  in  the 
ground  in  search  of  food.  Its  voice  is  very  loud  and 
resonant,  and  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance  as 
the  bird  flies  from  place  to  place. 

The  Little  Brown  Crane  is  a  smaller  and  rarer 
species  than  either  of  the  preceding.  It  closely  re- 
sembles the  Sandhill  Crane. 

Two  very  beautiful  species  found  in  Africa  and  fre- 
quently seen  in  captivity,  are  the  Demoiselle,  a  small 
bluish-grey  bird,  with  long  feathers  trailing  from  the 
tail,  and  the  Crowned  Crane,  remarkable  for  the  tuft 
of  feathers  on  its  head.  See  Plate  34,  Fig.  197. 

Included  among  the  Crane-like  birds,  although 
bearing  a  strong  resemblance  in  both  appearance  and 
character  to  the  Hawk  tribe,  is  the  Seriema,  of  South 
America.  It  is  not  unlike  the  Secretary-bird  of 
Africa,  and  feeds  upon  snakes,  killing  them  in  much 
the  same  manner,  by  pounding  them  with  its  feet  until 
they  are  reduced  to  a  pulp.  It  also  eats  small  mam- 
mals, such  as  mice  and  rats,  and  further  varies  its  diet 
with  fruits.  Although  able  to  fly  well,  it  lives  on 


SERIEMA— TRUMPETER  95 

the  ground,  in  the  grass  of  the  pampas,  and  runs  with 
great  speed,  having  very  long  legs.  See  Plate  42, 
Fig.  245. 

In  colour  the  Seriema  is  a  dull  brown  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  body,  somewhat  reddish  on  the 
back  and  the  upper  coverts  of  the  wings.  The 
feathers  are  thin  and  loosely  attached,  as  in  the 
Herons,  and  the  long  neck- feathers  are  so  fine  in  text- 
ure as  to  have 'almost  the  appearance  of  a  mane,  fall- 
ing over  the  back  and  sides  of  the*  neck.  The  inner 
web,  only,  of  the  primaries  is  barred  with  dark  colour. 
The  bill  and  legs  are  a  delicate  reddish  colour,  and 
the  eye,  which  is  fierce  and  Hawk-like  in  expression, 
is  a  beautiful  grey,  and  is  shaded  by  long  and  delicate 
lashes.  A  curious  character  of  this  bird  is  the 
inner  toe,  which  is  carried  free  of  the  ground  and  bears 
a  very  long,  sharply  recurved  claw  like  that  of  the 
Eagles,  the  other  claws  being  much  less  pointed  and 
straighter.  Growing  from  the  base  of  the  bill,  but 
not  extending  to  the  crown,  are  a  number  of  sparse, 
hair-like  feathers,  giving  the  bird  a  very  peculiar  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Seriema  has  a  most  remarkable  call,  or  cry, 
the  noise  being  extremely  loud  and  piercing,  and  al- 
most deafening  to  one  standing  near  the  bird.  In 
uttering  it,  the  head  is  dropped  back  against  the  shoul- 
ders and  the  mouth  is  held  widely  open,  the  sound 
actually  seeming  to  be  pumped,  or  squeezed,  from  the 
throat. 

The  Common  Trumpeter,  or  Golden-breasted 
Trumpeter,  is  another  very  interesting  South  Ameri- 
can bird,  that  has  no  very  near  relatives,  and  so  con- 


96  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

stitutes  a  family  by  itself.  Like  the  Seriama,  how- 
ever, it  is  placed  by  ornithologists  in  the  Order  of 
Crane-like  birds.  Its  power  of  flight  is  feeble,  so  that 
most  of  its  time  is  spent  upon  the  ground,  and  like  the 
preceding  form,  it  is  a  very  swift  runner.  These  birds 
are  easily  domesticated,  becoming  very  much  attached 
to  people  and  living  peaceably  with  domestic  Fowls. 
Trumpeters  are  somewhat  gregarious,  being  found  in 
small  flocks.  Their  call,  uttered  at  night  and  by  a 
number  of  birds  at  the  same  time,  is  loud  and  harsh. 

In  form  the  Trumpeter  is  not  unlike  a  small  Emu, 
having  a  rounded  back  and  long  neck,  but  it  partakes 
of  the  characters  of  other  species  as  well.  The  head 
and  neck  are  almost  jet  black,  and  on  the  breast  is  a 
patch  of  brilliant  iridescent  feathers  which  seem  to 
differ  in  texture  from  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  being 
much  stiff er  and  harsher.  This  iridescence  is  entirely 
bluish-green,  and  has  no  suggestion  of  golden  colour 
in  it.  The  back  and  upper  tail-coverts  are  a  warm 
grey,  and  bill  and  legs  greyish-black.  The  eye  is  very 
dark  and  shining,  and  looks  not  unlike  a  shoe-button 
sunken  in  the  dense  plumage  of  the  face.  The  feet 
are  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird,  and  are  evidently 
formed  for  scratching. 

The  Rail  tribe  are  mostly  small  birds,  of  shy,  skulk- 
ing habits  and  feeble  flight,  but  with  strong  legs,  and 
able  to  run  with  great  speed  through  the  marshes  in 
which  they  live.  One  of  the  smallest  is  the  Little 
Crake,  a  native  of  Africa,  but  occasionally  seen  in 
Great  Britain.  The  Spotted  Crake  is  common  all 
over  Europe  during  the  summer,  but  returns  to  Africa 
to  winter.  See  Plate  29,  Figs.  164,  166. 


164. 

Little  Crake 
(Zapornia  parva) 


163.  Water 
aqua 


European  Crane 


162. 

Little  Bustard 
'(Tetrax  tetrax). 


166. 

Spotted 
Crake 
1  Ponana 
parzanaj. 


165.  Moor-hen 
(Oallinula  ckloropus 


167.  European  Coot  (Fulica  atra). 


CAROLINA  CRAKE  97 

A  very  near  relative  of  the  Spotted  Crake  is  the 
Carolina  Crake,  or  Sora,  of  this  country,  a  pretty  little 
bird  of  mottled  plumage  and  black  and  white  bars  on 
the  flanks. 

The  Corncrake,  or  Land  Rail  as  it  is  often  called, 
is  common  in  Great  Britain,  but  only  occasionally 
seen  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  country.  Unlike  the 
Little  Crake  and  the  Spotted  Crake,  which  love  the 
marshes,  this  bird  frequents  dry  meadows,  clover 
fields,  and  fields  of  corn.  Though  feeble  in  flight, 
when  migrating  this  bird  is  able  to  travel  many  hun- 
dreds of  miles  without  stopping,  leaving  the  British 
Islands  in  the  autumn  to  pass  the  winter  in  Africa, 
and  returning  in  the  spring.  See  Plate  30,  Fig.  168. 

This  bird  makes  a  remarkable  creaking  sound  dur- 
ing the  summer  which  can  easily  be  imitated  by  pass- 
ing the  thumb-nail  over  the  teeth  of  a  fine  comb.  In 
this  way  they  can  often  be  lured  into  sight.  Like  the 
other  Rails,  the  Corncrake  does  not  take  wing  readily, 
and  it  flies  slowly,  with  the  legs  hanging  down.  When 
captured,  it  sometimes  tries  to  effect  its  escape  by 
feigning  death — a  device  used  by  other  members  of 
this  family  also. 

Some  well-known  species  of  Rail  in  this  country 
are  the  King  Rail,  one  of  the  largest  forms,  with 
variegated  plumage  of  brown,  black  and  grey  above, 
reddish-brown  below,  and  sides  barred  with  white, 
found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States;  the 
Virginia  Rail,  considerably  smaller  than  the  preced- 
ing, but  resembling  it  in  colour;  the  Clapper  Rail,  or 
Marsh  Hen,  with  pale  olive  colouring  above,  greyish- 
brown  on  the  wings,  and,  as  with  all  the  family,  bars 


98  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

on  the  flanks;  and  the  Little  Black  Rail,  with  rusty 
black  plumage  above,  barred  with  white,  nape  of  the 
neck  reddish,  and  the  under-parts  slate  colour. 

The  Gallinules  constitute  another  branch  of  this 
family,  two  species  of  which  are  found  in  our  Southern 
States.  The  Purple  Gallinule  has  the  head,  neck, 
and  breast  a  deep  bluish-purple,  the  rest  of  the  plum- 
age shading  to  greenish,  the  under  tail-coverts  white. 
A  distinguishing  mark  is  the  flat,  waxy  plate,  red  and 
blue  in  colour,  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  bill  is 
red,  tipped  with  green,  and  the  legs  are  yellow.  In 
flying,  the  Purple  Gallinule  raises  the  short  tail,  dis- 
playing the  pure  white  under-feathers,  and  the  legs 
hang  straight  down.  When  a  shot  is  fired,  it  is  at 
once  answered,  like  an  echo,  by  hundreds  of  these 
birds.  But,  although  heard,  they  are  seldom  seen,  for 
their  colouring  harmonises  so  perfectly  with  the  water- 
lily  pads  floating  on  the  blue  water  that  they  are  prac- 
tically invisible.  Their  toes  are  Very  long  and  deli- 
cately made,  enabling  the  birds  to  walk  with  ease  over 
the  vegetation  of  lakes  and  ponds  in  search  of  their 
food.  They  are  also  good  swimmers. 

The  Florida  Gallinule  is  about  the  same  size  as  the 
preceding  species,  but  differs  in  colouration,  the  back 
being  brownish,  the  flanks  streaked  with  white.  The 
birds  are  often  seen  together  in  the  fresh-water 
marshes  of  Florida,  the  more  brilliant  colouring  of  the 
first  species  mentioned  making  it  easily  distinguish- 
able from  the  other. 

The  Water  Rail  is  the  commonest  of  European 
Rails.  It  is  never  found  far  from  water,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  its  feet  are  not  Webbed,  it  swims  and 


240.     Rufous  Tinamou 
(Hhynchofus  wfescent). 


243.     Turkey-vulture 
(Cathartes  aura  septentrionalte). 


244.    Globose  Curassow 

(Female) 
( Crax  gloMcera). 


245.     Gambel  Partridge 
(Lophortyx  gambettii). 


246.     Road-runner 
(Geococcyx  calif ornianus). 


COOT— GREAT  BUSTARD  99 

dives  with  remarkable  ease.  The  toes  are  very  long 
and  slender.  On  account  of  its  shy  and  retiring 
habits,  this  bird  is  rarely  seen,  even  in  localities  where 
it  is  quite  common.  See  Plate  29,  Fig.  163. 

The  Coot  and  the  Water  Hen,  or  Common  Gal- 
linule,  of  Europe  are  also  admirable  divers.  The  toes 
of  the  Coot  are  provided  with  broad  lobes  along  their 
sides. 

The  Moor  Hen  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
Coot  not  only  by  its  smaller  size,  but  also  by  the  bright 
vermilion-red  shield  on  the  forehead  and  the  white 
patches  under  the  tail.  Though  an  extremely  timid 
bird  in  a  wild  state,  it  thrives  well  in  captivity  and  is 
often  seen  in  public  collections.  See  Plate  29,  Fig. 
165. 

The  Coot  is  a  larger  bird  than  the  Water  Hen,  or 
Gallinule,  and  is  easily  distinguished  from  it  by  the 
broad  white  bill.  The  European  Coot  has  no  white 
below  the  tail,  and  is  also  without  the  white  markings 
on  the  wings  that  characterise  the  American  species. 
Although  very  shy  birds  naturally,  it  is  said  that  in 
certain  localities  in  Florida  where  shooting  is  forbid- 
den they  are  as  tame  as  domestic  Ducks.  Young 
Coots,  while  still  in  the  nestling  plumage,  have  the 
head  ornamented  by  numerous  little  fleshy  warts  of  a 
bright  red  colour,  while  the  rest  of  the  body,  as  in  the 
young  'of  the  Rail  tribe  generally,  is  jet  black  in 
colour.  See  Plate  29,  Fig.  167. 

The  Little  Bustard  is  common  in  certain  parts  of 
Europe,  especially  in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  It  is 
abundant  in  Africa,  north  of  the  Sahara,  also  in  north- 
western India.  See  Plate  29,  Fig.  162. 


100          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  Great  Bustard  is  known  as  the  largest  of  Euro- 
pean birds,  male  individuals  often  weighing  as  much 
as  thirty  pounds.  It  is  now  extinct  in  Great  Britain, 
although  at  one  time  common  there,  but  is  still  found 
on  the  Continent.  The  enclosures  of  waste  land, 
planting  of  trees,  and  increase  of  population  have 
driven  it  from  many  of  its  former  breeding  places. 
The  males  are  much  larger  than  the  females  and  more 
brightly  coloured;  both  sexes  have  long  hair-like 
feathers  back  of  the  ears.  During  the  breeding  season 
the  males  go  through  with  strange  performances. 
The  tail  is  thrown  up  over  the  back,  showing  the  pure 
white  under-tail  coverts,  the  wings  are  drooped,  and 
the  bag,  or  pouch,  which  runs  down  the  front  of  the 
neck,  is  inflated  until  it  reaches  enormous  proportions, 
while  the  head  is  sunken  between  the  shoulders,  with 
the  long  ear-feathers  standing  up  at  the  sides.  Stc 
Plate  30,  Fig.  169. 

Bustards  are  confined  exclusively  to  the  Old  World, 
most  of  the  species  being  found  in  Africa. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PLOVERS,  GULLS,  AND  AUKS 
ORDER— CHARADRIIFORMES 

THE  birds  which  form  the  subject  of  the  present 
chapter  represent  a  varied  assemblage,  yet  all 
are  related.  Besides  the  typical  Plovers,  they 
include  the  Pratincoles,  Stilts,  Curlews,  Snipes,  Pha- 
laropes,  Gulls,  Terns,  and  Auks. 

While  some  species  frequent  inland  waters  and 
marshy'  places,  others  keep  more  or  less  to  the  sea- 
coast.  Though  the  majority  are  never  found  far  from 
water,  some  find  a  living  on  dry,  sandy  wastes.  All 
are  remarkable  for  their  great  powers  of  flight,  some, 
indeed,  travelling  thousands  of  miles  when  migrating. 

The  young  of  the  more  typical  of  the  Plover  tribe 
are  quite  active  from  the  moment  they  leave  the  shell, 
and  are  covered  with  short  down  more  or  less  mottled 
with  black;  but  the  colouration  of  the  down  varies  in 
different  species,  being  very  pale  in  those  that  breed 
in  sandy  wastes,  and  dark  when  the  nesting-ground  is 
in  marshy  places. 

One  of  the  most  aberrant — that  is,  one  that  differs 
most  from  the  typical  form — is  the  beautiful  Pratin- 
cole, or  Glareola,  a  bird  which  in  many  ways  resembles 

the  Swallow.    The  tail  is  long  and  forked,  the  wings 

101 


102  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

long  and  pointed,  and  the  form  is  slender  and  graceful. 
The  Pratincole  breeds  in  many  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  but  is  only  occasionally  seen  in  the  British 
Islands.  Like  the  Swallow,  it  catches  much  of  its  food 
on  the  wing — beetles,  grasshoppers  and  locusts  form- 
ing the  principal  prey — and  it  runs  very  nimbly  along 
the  ground.  This  bird  is  in  many  of  its  characters 
unlike  the  true  Plovers,  and  is  regarded  as  a  descend- 
ant of  a  more  ancient  stock — as  a  side  branch  of  the 
tree  that  gave  rise  to  the  typical  Plovers.  It  has  no 
representative  in  this  country.  See  Plate  31,  Fig. 
175. 

A  good  example  of  the  true  Plover  is  the  Golden 
Plover,  a  bird  widely  distributed  throughout  both  the 
Old  World  and  the  New^  and  known  under  many 
names.  The  American  species  is  slightly  smaller  than 
the  European,  but  resembles  it  in  colouration.  See 
Plate  30,  Fig.  170. 

In  the  breeding  season  this  bird  dons  a  gorgeous 
plumage,  greyish  above,  thickly  spotted  with  black, 
and  all  black  below,  but  in  the  autumn  the  jet-black 
feathers  of  the  under-parts  become  replaced  by  white, 
while  the  upper  loses  some  of  the  black  markings  and 
becomes  more  golden  in  tone. 

There  are  many  species  of  Ringed  Plover,  the  one 
figured  being  a  common  European  and  American 
shore-bird.  This  bird  builds  no  nest,  but  deposits  its 
eggs  in  a  slight  depression  in  the  sand,  and  from  their 
close  resemblance  to  the  surrounding  stones,  they  are 
exceedingly  difficult  to  locate.  The  nestlings  are  also 
very  inconspicuous  on  the  sand  of  the  beach.  See 
Plate  30,  Fig.  173. 


KILLDEER— LAPWING  103 

One  of  the  commonest  of  our  Plovers  is  the  Killdee, 
or  Killdeer,  so  called  from  its  notes,  uttered  loudly  and 
rapidly  when  the  bird  is  alarmed.  It  is  greyish-brown 
above  and  white  below,  has  a  black  band  on  the  breast, 
and  a  black  ring  round  the  neck.  Another  distinguish- 
ing mark  is  a  white  line  over  the  eye.  The  Killdeer 
resembles  the  preceding  species,  but  is  considerably 
larger.  It  feeds  both  by  day  and  by  night,  on  worms, 
beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  so  on,  in  marshes  and,  in 
winter,  along  the  shore. 

The  Little  Kentish  Plover  is  a  tiny  bird,  easily 
recognisable  by  its  incomplete  chest-band.  It  is  com- 
mon in  many  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  somewhat  rare 
in  England,  being  met  with  most  frequently  in  that 
country  along  the  shingle  beaches  of  Kent.  See  Plate 
30,  Fig.  174. 

The  Piping  Plover  is  a  small  form  found  in  eastern 
North  America,  ashy-brown  above  and  white  below. 

The  Lapwing,  or  Peewit,  is  another  bird  of  this 
tribe  that  is  common  in  Europe,  especially  so  in 
England,  where  its  eggs  are  highly  esteemed  for  food, 
many  of  them  being  sold  in  the  markets  of  London 
under  the  name  of  Plovers'  eggs — a  practice  that 
must  result  in  reducing  its  numbers.  See  Plate  30, 
Fig.  171. 

The  male  bird  is  very  beautiful  in  colour,  iridescent 
green  and  purple,  under-parts  white,  the  long  crest 
and  top  of  the  head  black  and  the  feet  red. 

The  eggs  of  the  Lapwing  vary  greatly  in  colour. 
They  are  laid  in  slight  hollows  in  the  ground,  little  or 
no  nest  being  made  for  their  reception.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  these  birds  collect  in  large  flocks,  dis- 


104  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

persing  again  in  the  spring.  They  are  among  the 
most  valuable  of  the  farmer's  allies,  worms,  slugs  and 
insects  forming  their  principal  food. 

The  Black-winged  Stilt  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  the  Plover  tribe,  having  extremely  long  legs 
(from  which  fact  it  receives  its  name),  a  long,  sharp 
bill,  long  neck  and  long  wings.  The  colour,  in  gen- 
eral, is  blackish  above  and  white  below,  and  the  feet 
and  legs  are  brilliant  red.  This  bird  is  met  with  abun- 
dantly in  marshy  places  in  the  Old  World.  The  great 
length  of  the  Stilt's  legs  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  bird 
obtains  its  food  by  wading  in  shallow  water  and  prob- 
ing in  the  mud  for  snails  and  other  small  creatures. 
See  Plate  30,  Fig.  172. 

Occasionally  seen  in  the  eastern  parts  of  this  coun- 
try, and  quite  common  in  certain  sections  of  the  West, 
is  the  Black-necked  Stilt,  which  is  all  black  above  and 
white  below. 

The  Avocet  is  one  of  the  strangest  forms  of  Plover, 
having  a  very  long,  slender,  upward-curving  bill,  long- 
legs  and  webbed  toes,  in  the  latter  respect  differing 
from  most  of  the  Wading-birds,  whose  toes  are  free. 
The  colour  of  the  Avocet  is  chiefly  black  and  white  and 
the  legs  are  bluish.  The  principal  American  species 
differs  from  the  European  in  having  a  reddish-brown 
head  and  neck.  See  Plate  32,  Fig.  184. 

The  Snipe  and  the  Woodcock  are  birols  with  which 
most  people  are  somewhat  familiar.  The  long,  slender 
bills  and  long  legs  which  distinguish  them  show  at  once 
that  they  cannot  live  long  far  away  from  water.  They 
are,  indeed,  dwellers  in  marshes  and  swamps,  living  on 
worms  and  aquatic  insects  and  small  water-snails. 


30. 


168.  Corn  Crake  (Crex  crex). 


no. 

Golden  Plover 

(Charadrius  domi- 

nicus). 


169.  Great  Bustard 
(Otis  tarda). 


111.  Lapwing    L  vul 
(Vanellus  vanellus). 


173.  Ring  Plover 
(JEyialitis  hiaticula}. 


172.  European  Stilt 
(Himantopus  himantopus). 


174.  Kentish  Plover 
(^Eyialitis  alexandrina). 


EUROPEAN  SNIPE— WILLET        105 

The  worms  are  obtained  by  probing  in  the  soft  soil  and 
are  apparently  detected  by  the  tip  of  the  beak,  which 
is  supplied  with  a  pair  of  large  nerves  and  is  therefore 
extremely  sensitive. 

The  buff  and  black  stripings  and  barrings  on  these 
birds  play  a  very  important  part,  since  they  serve  to 
blend  the  body  with  the  surrounding  grasses  when  the 
bird  is  crouching  to  avoid  its  enemies.  This  it  always 
does  in  preference  to  seeking  safety  by  flight. 

In  the  spring  both  males  and  females  spend  much 
of  their  time  in  making  extraordinary  sounds  known 
as  "bleating."  This  curious,  humming  noise  they  pro- 
duce by  mounting  high  in  the  air  and  then  descending 
with  tremendous  rapidity,  meanwhile  spreading  the 
wings  so  that  the  two  outer  feathers  stand  apart  from 
the  rest.  The  rush  of  air  against  these  is  now  known 
to  cause  the  sounds  which  have  puzzled  so  many  ob- 
servers. 

The  Common  Snipe  of  Europe  has  fourteen  tail- 
feathers,  while  the  nearly  related  American  species  has 
sixteen.  See  Plate  31,  Fig.  178. 

The  Jack  Snipe  is  a  common  British  bird  during  the 
winter  season,  leaving  in  the  spring  to  breed  in  north- 
ern Europe.  Smaller  than  the  Common  Snipe,  it  is 
further  distinguished  from  it  by  having  but  twelve 
tail-feathers.  This  bird  also  makes  curious  noises  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season,  but  these  are  apparently  vocal 
and  not  made  by  the  wing- feathers.  It  is  said  that  this 
noise  resembles  that  made  by  a  horse  when  galloping 
on  a  hard  road. 

The  real  home  of  the  Great,  or  Solitary,  Snipe  is  in 
the  marshy  districts  of  Poland  and  in  parts  of  Russia, 


106  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

but  it  is  met  with  also  in  Africa  and  in  Asia.  It  is  a 
larger  bird  than  the  Common  English  Snipe,  has  rela- 
tively shorter  beak  and  legs  and  more  closely  barred 
under-parts.  See  Plate  31,  Fig.  179. 

The  Willet  is  a  common  North  American  bird  of 
the  Snipe  family,  with  black-lined  wings  and  other- 
wise varied  plumage.  It  is  rather  large,  has  a  heavier 
bill  than  most  of  the  Snipes,  and  bluish  feet. 

A  well-known  marsh  bird  of  this  country  is  the  Yel- 
lowlegs,  named  from  its  conspicuously  bright  yellow 
legs.  This  and  the  preceding  species  are  members  of 
a  group  called  Tattlers,  from  their  habit  of  giving 
shrill  cries  on  the  approach  of  sportsmen.  Their  flesh 
is  highly  prized  for  the  table.  These  birds  are  found 
in  summer  throughout  the  temperate  parts  of  North 
America,  migrating  in  winter  to  Central  and  South 
America.  Their  plumage  is,  in  general,  a  mixture  of 
black  and  white,  in  spots  and  streaks.  They  are  semi- 
palmated,  or  partly  webbed,  and  can  swim,  fly  and  run 
with  equal  facility.  The  Greater  Yellowlegs  and  the 
Lesser  Yellowlegs  are  similar  in  colouring,  but  the 
second  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  first  named 
and  has  relatively  longer  legs. 

The  Woodcock  is  found  in  both  the  Old  World  and 
the  New  and  differs  but  little  in  colour.  The  Euro- 
pean species  is  much  larger  than  the  American  and  has 
the  breast  barred,  while  that  of  our  bird  is  whole- 
coloured.  The  plumage  is  a  beautiful  mixture  of 
russet-brown  and  black  and  there  is  a  transverse  black 
bar  across  the  top  of  the  head.  The  Woodcock  is 
closely  allied  to  the  true  Snipe,  having  the  long, 
straight,  sensitive  bill  common  to  that  family,  the 


WOODCOCK— GREENSHANK   107 

upper  mandible  being  used  much  as  a  finger  when 
probing  in  the  mud  for  worms  and  larvae. 

The  European  Woodcock  is  occasionally  seen  on 
our  shores  as  a  straggler.  In  both  countries  the  flesh 
of  this  bird  is  so  highly  esteemed  for  the  table  that  it  is 
in  danger  of  extermination.  It  breeds  chiefly  in  the 
higher  latitudes,  laying  its  eggs  upon  the  ground  in 
the  woods,  in  nests  of  leaves.  See  Plate  31,  Fig.  177. 

A  curious  anatomical  character  in  the  Woodcock  is 
the  position  of  the  ear  opening,  which  is  in  front  of  and 
beneath  the  level  of  the  eye.  In  the  Snipe  it  lies 
underneath  the  eye,  while  in  all  other  birds  it  is  found 
behind  the  eye.  The  eyes  of  this  bird  are  large,  dark 
brown  in  colour  and  set  far  at  the  back  of  the  head  and 
close  to  the  top. 

The  Woodcock  is  nocturnal  in  habits,  starting  for 
its  feeding-grounds  in  the  early  evening.  It  makes 
remarkable  spiral  flights  high  up  into  the  air,  during 
which  the  wind  rushes  through  the  stiff  outer  primaries 
with  a  whistling  or  bleating  sound. 

The  species  now  to  be  described  differ  conspicuously 
from  the  Snipes  and  Woodcocks  in  that  they  have  two 
distinct  plumages  during  the  year — a  sober-coloured 
dress  for  autumn  and  winter  and  a  more  richly  col- 
oured one  for  spring  and  summer.  The  latter  being 
assumed  just  before  the  nesting  season,  is  known  as 
the  breeding  dress. 

This  difference  is  not  very  strikingly  marked  in  the 
Greenshank,  a  somewhat  common  European  bird,  so 
called  from  the  colour  of  its  legs.  It  is  rather  large, 
measuring  about  fourteen  inches  in  length,  and  has  a 
slightly  upturned  bill.  In  summer  the  upper  parts 


108  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

of  the  neck  and  wings  are  nearly  black,  relieved  by 
pale  grey  edgings  to  the  feathers ;  the  lower  parts  are 
flecked  with  ashy  brown.  In  winter  the  upper  parts 
are  greyer  and  the  under  parts  white.  See  Plate  31, 
Fig.  180. 

The  eggs  of  the  Greenshank  are  a  warm  stone  col- 
our, blotched  with  purplish-grey  and  spots  of  brown. 
The  nest,  such  as  it  is,  is  often  placed  at  a  distance 
from  water  and  sometimes  on  dry  ground  amid  scat- 
tered pine  trees. 

In  our  country  this  bird  is  represented  by  the  God- 
wits,  or  Marlins,  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  also 
in  the  interior  of  the  Western  States,  but  seldom  on 
the  Atlantic  coast.  In  colouring  and  in  general  char- 
acters they  resemble  the  species  figured. 

In  the  Dunlin  the  contrast  between  the  summer  and 
winter  plumages  is  very  striking.  In  winter  the 
upper  parts  are  ash-coloured,  the  under  parts  white; 
but  towards  the  end  of  March  the  new  livery  begins  to 
make  its  appearance.  When  complete  the  upper  parts 
are  a  rich  golden-brown,  streaked  and  blotched  with 
black,  except  the  wings,  which  remain  grey,  while  the 
breast  becomes  jet  black.  The  females  are  somewhat 
larger  and  have  longer  beaks  than  the  males,  but  in  the 
length  of  beak  there  is  great  variation  in  both  sexes. 

The  Dunlin,  like  the  Snipe  and  Woodcock  and 
many  other  long  and  slender-beaked  waders,  has  the 
power  of  curving  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  up- 
wards for  a  considerable  distance,  enabling  it  to  seize 
its  prey  when  the  beak  is  thrust  downward  into  the 
mud  of  their  feeding-grounds.  See  Plate  32,  Fig. 
185. 


LEAST  SANDPIPER 109 

This  bird  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
northern  hemisphere,  migrating  at  the  beginning  of 
winter  to  a  warmer  climate.  It  breeds  chiefly  in  the 
Arctic  regions.  The  variety  found  in  this  country  is 
slightly  larger  than  that  of  the  Old  World  and  has  a 
longer  bill,  slightly  recurved. 

In  its  winter  dress  the  Little  Stint  looks  like  a  mini- 
ature Dunlin,  but  in  summer  it  assumes  the  coloura- 
tion of  its  larger  relative  only  so  far  as  the  upper  parts 
are  concerned,  the  under  parts  remaining  white.  Its 
breeding-ground  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  but 
it  takes  long  journeys  when  migrating,  and  in  the 
winter  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  See  Plate 
32,  Fig.  183. 

Our  American  Stint  is  commonly  called  the  Least 
Sandpiper  and  differs  from  the  European  species 
chiefly  in  that  it  is  smaller  and  darker  in  colour  at  all 
seasons.  This  tiny  wanderer,  but  six  inches  in  length, 
sometimes  strays  as  far  as  Great  Britain  and  other 
parts  of  Europe.  Its  bill  is  straight.  A  larger  spe- 
cies, the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper,  is  sometimes  seen 
with  the  Least  Sandpiper  along  our  coasts. 

Many  other  species  of  Sandpiper  are  found  in  this 
country. 

The  Curlew  Sandpiper,  which  is  only  an  occasional 
visitor  to  the  United  States,  is  very  striking  in  the 
matter  of  plumage.  In  winter  ash  grey  above  and 
white  below,  this  bird  in  the  early  spring  assumes  a 
richly  coloured  livery,  the  upper  parts  being  beauti- 
fully barred  and  streaked  with  black  and  grey  on  a 
ground  of  rich  chestnut,  while  the  under  parts  are  red- 
dish, slightly  barred  on  the  flanks  with  dark  brown  and 


110  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

grey.  The  females,  as  in  the  Plovers  generally,  re- 
semble the  males  and  are  slightly  larger.  See  Plate 
32,  Fig.  186. 

In  the  autumn  these  birds  visit  the  eastern  shores  of 
Great  Britain  in  great  numbers,  the  immigration 
at  that  time  consisting  chiefly  of  young  birds. 
Smaller  numbers  of  adult  birds  arrive  in  the  spring 
in  their  full  breeding  colours,  on  their  way  to  their 
breeding-grounds  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Like  the  Curlew  Sandpiper,  the  Knot  and  the  San- 
derling  have  a  red  breeding  plumage. 

The  Knot,  also  called  Robin  Snipe  and  Grey  Snipe, 
is  the  largest  of  these  three  species,  measuring  ten 
inches  in  length.  In  winter  grey  above  and  white 
below,  it  assumes  in  the  spring  a  very  handsome  dress. 
The  head  and  neck  are  reddish-brown,  with  dark 
streaks,  the  back-feathers  are  blackish,  spotted  with 
chestnut  and  margined  with  white,  while  the  throat 
and  breast  are  a  rich  dark  chestnut.  See  Plate  32, 
Fig.  187. 

Until  the  year  1876  the  breeding-place  of  the  Knot 
was  unknown.  It  was  then  discovered  nesting  in  the 
snow  of  the  Arctic  regions,  by  Colonel  Fielding,  when 
on  an  Arctic  expedition.  On  this  occasion  nestlings 
only  were  found,  and  the  eggs  were  unknown  until  the 
year  1901,  when  specimens  were  found  in  the  Taimyr 
Peninsula,  Siberia. 

The  Knot  is  well  known  in  this  country  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  as  well  as  on  the  Great  Lakes  and 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  Sanderling  differs  from  the  other  Sandpipers 
in  that  it  lacks  the  hind-toe.  In  its  autumn  and  win- 


RUFF— REDSHANK 111 

ter  dress  this  bird  is  grey  above  and  white  below,  but 
during  the  summer  months  the  feathers  of  the  upper 
parts  have  dark  brown  or  black  centres,  edged  or  spot- 
ted with  rufous,  while  the  face,  neck  and  upper  part 
of  the  breast  are  a  pale  chestnut,  spotted  with  dark 
brown.  This  little  bird  breeds  in  the  far  north,  but 
at  other  times  is  found  along  the  beaches  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world.  See  Plate  32,  Fig.  188. 

In  many  ways  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Plover 
tribe  is  the  Ruff,  sometimes  called  the  Fighting  Sand- 
piper, a  bird  that  is  widely  distributed  in  the  Old 
World,  though  but  rarely  seen  in  America.  The  male 
takes  its  name  from  a  wonderful  frill  of  feathers  about 
the  neck,  bearing  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  Eliza- 
bethan ruff.  The  female  is  called  a  Reeve,  but  for 
what  reason  is  not  known.  The  colouration  of  the  ruff 
varies  in  every  individual.  As  if  still  further  to 
heighten  the  effect  of  this  ornament,  the  head  is 
adorned  with  broad  ear-tufts,  while  around  the  beak 
are  brilliantly  coloured,  fleshy  tubercles.  In  the  illus- 
tration the  ruff  is  black  and  the  ear-tufts  dark  brown, 
but  ruffs  of  white,  buff  and  chestnut  also  occur,  and 
they  may  be  plain,  banded,  spotted  or  streaked  with 
darker  colours.  In  the  autumn  the  various  ornaments 
are  discarded,  and  the  male  is  distinguished  from  the 
female  only  by  its  larger  size.  These  ruffs  are  made 
to  play  an  important  part  during  the  courting  season, 
for  at  this  time  their  wearers  meet  together  daily  for 
the  purpose  of  sparring  with  each  other  and  fighting 
mimic  battles.  When  a  Ruff  is  in  the  presence  of  a 
Reeve  he  behaves  very  strangely,  thrusting  his  beak 


112  EIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

down  to  the  ground  and  spreading  out  his  ruff  and 
ear-tufts  to  the  fullest  extent.  And  in  this  position 
he  will  stand  for  a  minute  or  more,  as  if  to  give  the 
female  time  to  admire  him,  though,  as  often  as  not,  she 
quietly  walks  off  as  soon  as  she  sees  that  he  is  too  ab- 
sorbed in  his  ceremonial  to  notice  whether  she  is  look- 
ing or  not.  See  Plate  31,  Fig.  181. 

The  Redshank  brings  us  back  to  the  more  normal 
Wading-birds.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  orange 
colour  of  the  legs.  This  bird  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  Old  World,  but  is  not  known  in  America.  Al- 
though it  has  distinct  summer  and  winter  plumage, 
these  do  not  differ  conspicuously.  The  lower  part  of 
the  back  is  always  white.  See  Plate  32,  Fig.  182. 

The  American  Oyster-catcher  is  a  strictly  marine 
bird  of  this  tribe,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  feeding 
upon  small  oysters,  clams  and  other  mollusks  found 
along  beaches,  using  its  strong  beak  to  force  open  the 
shells.  It  breeds  on  the  coast  as  far  north  as  southern 
New  Jersey  and  is  fairly  common.  Three  species  are 
found  in  America,  the  Black  Oyster-catcher  having 
entirely  black  plumage,  with  red  bill,  feet  and  eyes. 

Several  species  of  Curlew  are  native  to  this  country, 
the  largest  of  which  is  the  Long-billed,  found  chiefly 
in  the  interior  as  far  north  as  Manitoba,  but  also  seen 
along  the  coast.  The  beak  is  long  and  curved  like  that 
of  an  Ibis.  The  colouration  is  black  and  buff  above, 
the  tail  barred  with  the  same  colours,  the  under  parts 
buff,  streaked  with  darker  colour.  This  is  the  largest 
of  American  shore-birds,  measuring  about  two  feet  in 
length,  the  long,  pointed  wings  spreading  about  forty 


32. 


182.  Re 


(Actod-romas  minuta) 


European  Avocet 

(JRecuroirottra 

avocetta). 


^ 


186.  Curlew  Sandpiper 
(Eroiia  ferruginea). 


187.  Knot 
(Tringa  canutu*). 


188. 
Sanderling 


(CaUdris  arenaria). 


PHALAROPE— GULLS  113 

inches.  Like  that  of  the  Snipe  and  Woodcock,  this 
plumage  is  worn  throughout  the  year. 

A  commoner  species  along  our  coasts  is  the  Hud- 
sonian  Curlew,  a  smaller  form  than  the  preceding. 
The  Eskimo  Curlew  is  more  frequently  met  with  in 
the  interior,  being  more  of  a  field  bird  than  either  of 
the  others  mentioned. 

The  species  figured  is  the  European  Curlew,  which 
closely  resembles  the  American.  See  Plate  31,  Fig. 
176.  * 

The  Phalaropes  are  small  birds,  in  general  appear- 
ance resembling  the  Sandpipers,  but  having  lobed 
toes.  The  wings  are  long  and  the  tail  rather  short. 
They  breed  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  migrate  south- 
ward in  winter. 

The  largest  and  most  beautiful  species  is  Wilson's 
Phalarope,  found  only  in  America,  chiefly  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  country.  The  female  exceeds  the  male 
in  size  and  beauty,  and  he  performs  the  duties  of  nest- 
building  and  brooding  the  eggs.  The  plumage  is  ash- 
colour  above,  varied  with  chestnut,  and  white  below; 
the  bill  and  feet  are  black. 

The  Jacanas  are  related  to  the  Plover  tribe  and  are 
found  in  both  America  and  Europe.  These  are  small 
birds,  having  enormously  long  toes  and  claws  that 
enable  them  to  walk  with  ease  over  floating  aquatic 
plants.  The  commonest  species  in  this  country  is  the 
Mexican  Jacana.  The  tail  is  short  and  the  wings  are 
provided  with  spurs  that  are  used  in  fighting,  the  birds 
being  very  quarrelsome.  They  are  found  along  the 
banks  of  streams  and  ponds,  but  are  unable  to  swim. 


114  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

GULLS 

At  one  time  regarded  as  near  relatives  of  the  Pet- 
rels, it  is  now  known  that  these  birds  are  much  more 
closely  related  to  the  Plovers,  and  this  relationship  is 
shown,  curiously  enough,  most  strikingly  in  the 
colouration  of  the  eggs  on  the  one  hand  and  in  the 
skeleton  on  the  other,  though  many  other  common  ana- 
tomical characters  afford  equally  positive  evidence  of 
this  fact. 

Like  the  Petrels  and  unlike  the  Plovers,  they  are 
web-footed.  But  they  differ  from  the  Petrels  and 
resemble  the  Plovers  in  having  slit-like  instead  of 
tubular  nostrils. 

Such  species  as  display  a  distinct  summer  dress 
have  this  change  confined  to  the  colouration  of  the 
head.  Many  species  require  several  years  to  attain 
their  fully  adult  plumage. 

Gulls  fly  with  more  deliberate  flaps  of  the  wings 
than  Terns  and  Jaegers  and  are  able  to  keep  in  the  air 
even  longer  without  coming  to  the  water  to  rest.  It 
is  believed  that  individuals  have  followed  vessels  en- 
tirely across  the  Atlantic.  Gulls  are  excellent  swim- 
mers, exceedingly  buoyant  and  floating  high  on  the 
waves  with  the  breast  seeming  just  to  touch.  One 
alighting  upon  the  water  is  a  very  pretty  sight,  indeed. 
Raising  the  wings  high  above  the  back  as  it  nears 
the  surface,  with  the  delicate  feet  extended  down- 
ward, the  bird  settles  quietly  to  rest,  folding  its  wings 
and  carefully  adjusting  its  plumage.  They  sleep  or 
appear  to  sleep  in  the  wildest  sea,  bobbing  up  and 
down  on  the  waves  like  corks,  and  no  amount  of  spray 


GULLS  115 

or  wind  seems  to  affect  them.  Strangely  enough,  they 
are  able  to  accelerate  their  speed  without  flapping  the 
wings,  and  a  Gull  hovering  at  the  stern  of  a  swiftly 
moving  steamer  will  suddenly  fly  ahead  of  and  around 
it,  resuming  its  position  at  the  stern  without  a  single 
wing-beat.  Gulls  fly  by  night  as  well  as  by  day  and 
take  very  little,  if  any,  sleep,  for  days  at  a  time,  resting 
on  the  water  for  some  hours  and  then  resuming  their 
flight. 

Gulls  have  long  and  rather  narrow  wings,  particu- 
larly adapted  for  long-continued  and  powerful  flight. 
They  flap  the  wings  apparently  with  considerable 
effort,  but  in  spite  of  seeming  exhaustion  keep  flap- 
ping for  hours  at  a  time  on  inland  streams  or  rivers 
where  the  wind  is  hardly  sufficient  to  buoy  them  up. 

All  have  powerful  bills  which  serve  in  tearing  their 
food.  The  legs  are  short  and  delicate,  the  feet  small 
and  webbed.  Most  species  are  white  mixed  with  grey 
or  black,  though  in  one  or  two  forms  a  reddish  tint  is 
visible  on  the  feathers.  The  plumage  is  exquisitely 
soft  and  smooth  and  always  in  immaculate  condition. 

Gulls  nest  in  many  different  sites,  but  usually  on 
the  ground,  either  among  rocks  or  on  the  sandy  shores. 
Occasionally  they  build  in  trees.  They  eat  a  great 
variety  of  food  and  are  practically  birds  of  prey,  feed- 
ing on  small  animals  and  the  eggs  and  young  of  other 
birds.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Jaegers,  who 
keep  the  Murres,  Puffins  and  Auks  which  nest  in  the 
same  localities  constantly  on  the  alert  to  protect  their 
nurseries  from  these  marauders. 

The  voice  of  the  Gull  is  peculiarly  harsh,  and  the 


116          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

screams  of  these  birds  above  a  heavy  storm  are  fre- 
quently heard  on  vessels  far  out  at  sea. 

The  young  are  covered  with  a  fluffy  down,  usually 
mottled  with  grey,  light  brown  and  white.  They  re- 
main in  the  nest  for  a  considerable  time  and  are  so 
protectively  coloured  that  they  are  with  difficulty  dis- 
tinguished from  their  surroundings. 

Besides  living  food,  Gulls  consume  an  immense 
amount  of  refuse  matter  found  along  shore  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  cities.  For  some  years  scows  laden 
with  refuse  from  the  city  of  New  York  have,  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  emptied  their  contents  some  miles  out  at 
sea.  At  the  shriek  of  the  whistle  on  one  of  these 
barges — the  signal  to  dump  the  garbage  into  the  sea— 
they  begin  to  gather  in  thousands  to  feed  upon  it,  and 
those  who  have  seen  it  say  it  is  a  most  remarkable  spec- 
tacle to  see  these  birds  hurrying  from  all  quarters  to 
the  feast. 

Great  numbers  of  Gulls  were  formerly  killed  by 
feather  hunters,  but  fortunately  they  are  now  pro- 
tected, and  they  have  again  become  quite  plentiful 
along  our  coasts. 

The  Herring  Gull  affords  a  good  instance  of  the 
Gulls  which  take  several  years  to  attain  the  character- 
istic adult  dress.  The  back  in  this  species  is  a  delicate 
grey,  the  rest  of  the  plumage  pure  white,  set  off  by  the 
yellow  colour  of  the  feet  and  beak.  The  beak  is  fur- 
ther decorated  by  a  touch  of  bright  red.  The  eye  is 
a  beautiful  straw  colour,  set  in  a  frame  of  vermilion 
formed  by  the  rim  of  the  eyelid.  The  sexes  cannot  be 
distinguished  externally,  and  the  summer  and  winter 
plumage  is  alike,  except. that  in  winter  the  head  is 


221.  Black-browed 

Albatross 
(Diomedea  metano- 


222.  Snake  Bird 
(Anhinga  anhinga). 


223.  Herring  Gull 
(Larus  argentatw). 


224.   Mew  Gull 
(Larus  carius). 


-  'l 


226. 


Parasitic  Jaeger  (Stercorariue  paraslticus). 


225.   Kittiwake  (Ri*8a  tridactyla). 


MEW  GULL— BLACK  SKIMMER      117 

streaked  with  grey.  The  young  birds  are  mottled 
with  brown.  See  Plate  38,  Fig.  223. 

The  Herring  Gull  is  common  in  both  Europe  and 
America  and  the  two  forms  are  practically  alike  in 
size  and  colour.  This  is  the  bird  so  commonly  seen  in 
our  harbours  and  following  in  the  track  of  vessels. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  Herring  Gull  is  the  Great 
Black-backed  Gull,  a  rather  larger  bird  than  the  for- 
mer and  distinguished  from  it  by  having  a  dark,  slaty 
black  instead  of  pale  grey  back.  The  tips  of  the 
wings  and  rest  of  the  plumage  are  pure  white.  It  is  a 
more  northern  species  than  the  Herring  Gull,  but  is 
frequently  seen  in  company  with  them. 

The  Common  European  Gull,  or  Mew  Gull,  as  it 
is  called  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Kittiwake,  have  no 
decided  difference  of  plumage,  except  that  in  winter 
the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  become  flecked 
with  grey,  as  in  the  Herring  Gull.  In  the  Kittiwake 
the  hind-toe  has  become  reduced  to  the  vanishing 
point.  See  Plate  38,  Figs.  224,  225. 

There  are  several  species  of  these  birds  in  this  coun- 
try, but  they  differ  little  in  general  appearance. 

The  Black-headed  Gull  differs  from  those  just  de- 
scribed in  that  during  the  summer  months  the  head 
assumes  a  dark  brown  colour,  which,  when  the  bird  is 
flying,  looks  black;  hence  its  name.  Young  birds  in 
their  first  plumage  may  be  readily  distinguished  by 
the  fact  that  the  small  feathers  of  the  wings  are  brown, 
while  the  tail  has  a  black  bar  across  the  tip.  But  the 
fully  adult  characters  are  assumed  on  the  comple- 
tion of  the  first  year — in  which  it  differs  from  the 


118  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Herring  and  Black-backed  Gulls,  which  require  years 
to  attain  the  adult  plumage.  See  Plate  39,  Fig.  228. 

During  the  winter  months,  for  some  years  past, 
these  birds  have  assembled  in  large  numbers  on  the 
Thames  and  on  the  waters  of  the  London  parks. 

The  Laughing  Gull,  which  breeds  in  the  eastern 
part  of  North  America,  has  in  summer  dark  grey 
wings  and  back,  with  black  primaries,  head  and  throat 
darker,  under  parts  white,  and  bill  a  deep  red;  in 
winter,  the  head  and  throat  become  white,  sometimes 
streaked  with  greyish  colour.  The  name  is  taken  from 
its  curious  cry,  resembling  laughter. 

The  Black  Skimmer  or  Scissor-bill  is  a  remarkable 
member  of  the  Gull  family,  having  the  lower  mandible 
considerably  longer  than  the  upper.  Both  are  thin 
and  very  flexible,  and  the  bird  skims  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  search  of  small  aquatic  creatures.  These 
birds  are  quite  common  along  our  southern  coasts, 
nesting  in  the  sand  and  gravel  of  the  beach.  The 
young  harmonise  so  perfectly  with  their  surroundings 
as  to  be  practically  invisible.  In  them  for  some  time 
the  mandibles  are  of  equal  length.  The  plumage  of 
the  adult  bird  is  black  and  white  and  the  bill  is  red  and 
black. 

The  small,  fork-tailed,  short-legged  birds  known  as 
Terns  are  very  closely  related  to  the  Gulls,  but  have 
relatively  longer  wings  and  are  much  more  graceful 
and  swift  in  flight.  They  perform  many  strange  evo- 
lutions in  the  air,  large  flocks  flying  round  and  round 
in  a  huge  circle,  wheeling  and  swerving  like  one  bird. 
They  are  extremely  noisy,  uttering  their  harsh  calls 
almost  continuously.  Terns  flap  their  wings  much 


ROYAL  TERN— FULMAR  119 

oftener  than  Gulls  and  may  readily  be  distinguished 
from  them  by  their  smaller  size  and  long,  sharply 
pointed  bills.  They  are  not  as  good  swimmers,  having 
very  small  and  delicate  feet.  On  shore  they  patter 
about  in  a  very  pretty  and  graceful  manner.  Their 
food  consists  principally  of  living  fish,  which  they 
procure  by  diving  from  a  considerable  height  into  the 
water. 

Their  nesting  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  Gulls, 
great  colonies  of  them  laying  their  eggs  in  hollows  on 
the  beach,  usually  on  remote  islands,  but  sometimes 
on  the  coast  or  along  inland  waters.  Great  numbers 
of  the  Common,  or  Wilson's,  Tern  breed  on  the  island 
of  Penikese,  off  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  a  favour- 
able site  for  them,  since  it  has  in  recent  years  become 
Government  property  and  the  breeding-grounds  of 
the  birds  will  be  protected.  The  young  are  tiny, 
fluffy  creatures,  much  like  young  Gulls  for  the  first 
few  months  of  their  existence,  and  bear  a  close  resem- 
blance to  their  surroundings.  See  Plate  39,  Fig.  230, 

The  Royal  Tern  is  frequently  seen  along  our  south- 
ern coasts,  particularly  in  Florida,  where  it  is  often 
seen  chasing  the  less  active  Pelicans  and  forcing  them 
to  disgorge  their  prey,  when  by  a  swift  plunge  they 
secure  the  prize  before  it  reaches  the  water.  Another 
interesting  species  is  the  Noddy  Tern,  found  in  sum- 
mer along  the  Gulf  coast.  In  this  the  top  of  the  head 
is  white,  instead  of  black,  the  rest  of  the  plumage  a 
very  dark  brown  and  the  middle  tail-feathers  are  long- 
est. In  Terns  the  outer  tail-feathers  are  longer  than 
the  others,  as  in  Swallows,  and  hence  they  are  often 


120          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

called  Sea  Swallows.  When  alarmed,  these  birds 
hover  distractedly  in  the  air  above  their  nests. 

The  Little,  or  Least,  Tern  in  its  general  appearance 
resembles  the  Common  Tern,  from  which,  however, 
it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  much  smaller 
size  and  by  the  yellow,  black- tipped  beak.  The  Least 
Tern  of  America  is  nearly  related  to  the  European 
species,  but  has  less  black  on  the  back.  It  is  said  to 
vary  its  fish  diet  with  insects.  As  may  be  inferred 
from  its  name,  this  is  the  smallest  member  of  the  Tern 
family.  See  Plate  39,  Fig.  227. 

The  Bridled  and  Sooty  Terns  are  two  species  that 
closely  resemble  each  other,  found  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  regions  of  the  western  hemisphere. 

The  Fulmar  is  remarkable  for  having  two  distinct 
phases  of  plumage — a  light  phase,  in  which  the  head, 
neck  and  under  parts  are  white,  with  back,  wings  and 
tail  grey,  and  a  dark  phase,  in  which  the  whole  plum- 
age is  much  the  same  shade  of  dark,  smoky  grey. 
This  bird  is  Gull-like  in  form,  but  has  longer  wings. 
These  are  occasionally  flapped  slowly  in  flight,  but 
much  of  the  time  are  held  stiffly  outstretched. 

The  Sandwich  Tern  derives  its  name  from  the  place 
where  it  was  first  observed — Sandwich,  England.  In 
this  species  the  crown  in  summer  is  black  and  the  beak 
is  black  tipped  with  yellow.  The  back,  as  in  the  other 
Terns  and  many  of  the  Gulls,  is  a  beautiful  pearl- 
grey,  the  under-parts  white,  but  tinged  with  a  salmon- 
pink  colour,  which  rapidly  fades  after  the  death  of  the 
bird.  The  legs  and  feet  are  black,  in  this  respect  dif- 
fering from  those  of  the  other  Terns  described.  See 
Plate  39,  Fig.  229. 


AUKS  121 

Skuas  and  Jaegers  are  Gull-like  birds  found  along 
the  waters  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  differ 
from  typical  Gulls  and  Terns  not  only  anatomically 
and  in  their  more  sombre  colouration,  but  also  in  their 
habits.  They  are  known  as  parasitic,  from  the  fact 
that  they  chase  Gulls  and  force  them  to  disgorge  the 
fish  they  have  captured.  So  expert  is  the  Skua  that 
he  will  catch  the  fish  dropped  by  his  victim  before  it 
can  reach  the  sea.  Skuas  also  devour  the  eggs  and 
young  of  any  other  birds  which  may  have  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  breeding  in  their  neighbourhood. 

The  nestlings  of  the  various  species  of  Skuas  differ 
from  those  of  Gulls  and  Terns  in  being  dark  and 
whole-coloured,  instead  of  grey  and  mottled  with 
black. 

The  Parasitic  Jaeger  and  the  Long-tailed  Jaeger, 
as  it  is  often  called,  are  found  the  whole  way  round  the 
northern  hemisphere,  having  a  wide  range  over  the 
Arctic  regions  of  America.  See  Plate  38,  Fig.  226. 

AUKS 

The  Auks — in  other  words,  the  Guillemots,  Razor- 
bills and  Puffins — are  among  the  most  interesting  of 
living  birds,  for  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  are 
descended  from  some  Plover-like  ancestor  and  that 
their  present  peculiarities  of  shape  and  structure  were 
slowly  acquired  as  they  became  more  and  more  aqua- 
tic until  they  have  assumed  a  dose  resemblance  to  the 
far  more  ancient  Diving-birds.  As  divers  and  in  the 
skill  they  display  in  the  capture  of  fish,  which  they 
chase  under  water,  these  birds  have  no  rivals.  They 
are  never  met  with  in  fresh  water,  but  frequent  rocky 


122  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

coasts  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres, 
where  they  live  in  enormous  colonies. 

The  Guillemot  and  the  Razor-bill  breed  on  the 
edges  of  cliffs,  laying,  on  the  bare  rock,  but  a  single 
pear-shaped  egg.  The  Puffin,  on  the  other  hand, 
chooses  a  burrow  for  its  nest,  seizing,  as  a  rule,  one 
dug  either  by  a  rabbit  or  a  Petrel,  and  driving  out  the 
rightful  occupants  by  the  aid  of  its  powerful  beak. 
See  Plate  40,  Fig.  239. 

These  birds  are  all  compact  in  form,  with  short, 
rounded  tails  and  webbed  feet.  Their  wings,  while 
short,  are  very  powerful,  and  the  birds  fly  with  great 
speed,  but  they  are  not  graceful  on  the  wing  and  do 
not  soar  like  the  Gulls  and  some  of  their  allies. 
Owing  to  their  almost  inaccessible  breeding-grounds, 
these  birds  are  still  very  plentiful.  Their  eggs  are 
used  for  food  by  the  Eskimos  and  the  flesh  of  the  birds 
as  well.  The  eggs  are  collected  during  the  warmer 
months  of  the  year  and  stored  for  use  during  the  long 
winter.  See  Plate  39,  Fig.  233. 

The  Murres  are  closely  allied  to  the  Guillemots  and 
much  like  them  in  form.  Two  species — the  California 
and  Pallas's  Murre — are  extremely  abundant  on  the 
islands  of  the  Bering  Sea  and  are  said  "to  outnumber 
all  the  other  sea  birds  in  that  region  fully  ten  to  one." 
See  Plate  40,  Fig.  238. 

One  writer  who  has  studied  these  birds  in  their 
haunts  on  the  islands  of  the  Bering  Sea,  says:  "Puf- 
fins are  the  most  outlandish  birds,  trim  in  build,  about 
a  foot  in  length,  with  very  short  feet  and  webbed  toes. 
When  seated  on  the  rocks  they  assume  an  erect  pos- 
ture, and  their  small  heads  set  close  down  upon  their 


GREAT  AUK— DOVEKIE  123 

shoulders  look  ridiculously  insignificant  in  comparison 
with  their  exaggerated  beaks,  which  are  much  flat- 
tened sidewise  and  immensely  spread  out  from  top  to 
bottom.  .  .  .  This  great  beak  is  largely  an  ap- 
pendage of  the  breeding  season  and  is  cast,  like  the 
antlers  of  a  deer,  at  the  end  of  that  period."  It  is 
brilliantly  coloured  in  red,  yellow  and  green. 

In  the  Tufted  Puffin,  during  the  breeding  season, 
two  bunches  of  yellow  feathers  grow  from  the  sides  of 
the  head  just  behind  the  eye,  extending  for  some  dis- 
tance behind  the  neck.  It  is  brownish-black  above  and 
greyish-brown  below,  while  the  Horned  Puffin,  which 
takes  its  name  from  a  small  excrescence  on  the  eyelid, 
is  almost  black  above  and  white  below,  and  the  feet  are 
brilliant  red. 

The  Great  Auk,  a  larger  bird  than  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding species,  standing  more  than  two  feet  in  height, 
has  become  extinct  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
Its  wings  were  rudimentary,  and  being  unable  to  fly  it 
was  quickly  killed  off  by  early  travellers  to  the  North 
for  its  feathers,  flesh  and  oil,  and  a  few  skins,  bones 
and  eggs  that  have  been  preserved  in  museums  and 
by  collectors  are  all  that  remain  of  this  interesting 
bird.  In  colouring,  the  Great  Auk  was  all  black  above 
and  pure  white  below,  with  a  large  white  spot  in  front 
of  the  eyes. 

The  Wings  of  the  Little  Auk,  or  Dovekie  for- 
tunately unlike  those  of  its  great  relative,  are 
well  developed  and  used  in  flight.  This  bird  is  com- 
mon along  the  rocky  shores  of  the  British  Islands  and 
many  other  favourable  localities  in  the  north  Atlantic. 
See  Plate  40,  Fig.  236. 


CHAPTER  X 

PIGEONS 
ORDER— COLUMB^ 

PIGEONS  are  now  generally  believed  to  be  very 
near  relations  of  the  Plover  tribe,  little  as  these 
two  groups  appear  to  have  in  common,  judged 
by  external  characters  alone.  When,  however,  we 
compare  them  anatomically,  we  gain  true  insight  into 
their  relationships. 

Pigeons  are,  for  the  most  part,  short-legged,  ar- 
boreal birds.  Certain  forms,  however,  such  as  the 
Crowned  Pigeons  and  a  few  others,  have  taken  to  liv- 
ing on  the  ground,  and  in  these  the  legs  are  much 
longer  than  in  the  tree-living  species. 

Two  white  eggs  are  laid  in  a  season  and  the  parents 
relieve  each  other  in  the  task  of  incubating.  The 
young  are  hatched  naked  and  are  for  a  long  time  help- 
less. Pigeons  are  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  the 
inner  walls  of  the  crop,  which  is  of  great  size,  are  richly 
provided  with  blood-vessels  which  during  the  breeding 
season  secrete  what  is  known  as  "Pigeon's  milk,"  and 
on  this  the  young  are  fed,  the  parent  thrusting  its  bill 
into  the  mouth  of  the  young  and  regurgitating  this 
substance. 

The  Pigeon  family  is  a  very  large  one,  consisting  of 

124 


PIGEONS  125 


about  three  hundred  species,  and  is  distributed  over  a 
large  part  of  the  warmer  sections  of  the  world.  A 
great  many  are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  especially  in 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  In  form  they  resemble 
each  other  closely.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  fairly  large 
birds,  with  strong  feet  and  legs,  and  in  walking  have 
a  singular  jerky  motion,  the  head  bobbing  backwards 
and  forwards  at  each  step.  When  rising  from  the 
ground,  many  beat  the  backs  of  their  wings  together, 
causing  a  loud  flapping  sound.  The  different  domes- 
tic breeds  are  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  the  Rock 
Dove  of  Europe.  The  young  are  known  as  squabs, 
and  are  highly  prized  for  food. 

Pigeons,  as  a  rule,  are  gregarious,  flying  in  large 
flocks,  although  some  species  are  solitary  in  habits.  In 
flight  they  do  not  seem  to  have  any  orderly  arrange- 
ment like  that  of  Ducks  and  Geese,  but  proceed  in  a 
compact  mass. 

The  attitude  of  Pigeons  in  perching  is  peculiar  and 
very  characteristic.  The  feet — that  is,  the  portion 
from  the  toes  to  the  heel — are  placed  in  an  almost  hori- 
zontal position,  the  bird  appearing  to  hang  away  from 
the  branch  or  perch  in  an  awkward  manner.  The 
grasping  power  of  the  toes  must  be  considerable  in 
order  to  maintain  this  position.  Most  birds  perch  with 
the  feet  directly  under  the  body. 

The  voice  of  Pigeons  is  a  well-marked  character, 
best  described  by  the  word  "coo,"  which  perhaps  most 
closely  resembles  it.  The  sound  is  always  accompa- 
nied by  the  curious  bobbing  motion  of  the  head. 

As  a  rule,  Pigeons  of  the  western  hemisphere  re- 
semble each  other  somewhat  in  colouring,  which  is 


126  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

a  fawn  or  greyish,  variously  mingled  with  spots  of 
black  and  white.  Nearly  all  have  a  slight  iridescence 
about  the  neck  and  head  and  sometimes  on  the  wings. 
A  few  species  have  long,  sharp-pointed  tails  like  that 
of  the  Passenger  Pigeon  and  Mourning  Dove,  but 
most  of  them  have  short,  square  tails. 

The  remarkable  extinct  bird  known  as  the  Dodo 
was  long  a  puzzle  to  scientific  men,  but  is  now  known 
to  have  belonged  to  the  Pigeon  tribe.  It  was  an  in- 
habitant of  Mauritius  and  was  discovered  by  the  early 
sea  captains  who  visited  the  island  in  search  of  water. 
The  Dodo  was  as  heavy  or  heavier  than  the  Turkey- 
cock  and  round  and  ungainly  in  appearance.  The 
head  was  enormously  large,  the  bill  long  and  sharply 
recurved.  It  was  absolutely  flightless,  the  wings 
being  represented  by  a  few  small,  fluffy,  Ostrich-like 
plumes.  The  legs  were  short  and  stout,  the  feet  heavy 
and  armed  with  powerful  claws.  Being  flightless  and 
clumsy  and  so  unable  to  escape  from  their  enemies, 
these  birds  were  very  quickly  exterminated,  only  a  few 
scattered  bones  and  feathers  now  carefully  preserved 
in  museums  remaining  of  this  gigantic  Pigeon. 

The  American  Passenger  Pigeon  was  remarkable 
for  the  enormous  numbers  in  which  it  existed  in  the 
United  States  not  more  than  fifty  years  ago.  These 
birds  literally  swarmed  over  the  country.  A  flock  seen 
by  the  naturalist  Wilson  was  estimated  by  him  to  con- 
sist of  many  millions,  and  in  1813  Audubon  reported 
enormous  hosts  of  them,  so  thickly  packed  that  they 
obscured  the  light  of  the  sun  at  noontime  as  effectively 
as  an  eclipse.  See  Plate  22,  Fig.  133. 

Another  naturalist,  Brewster,  describing  the  nest- 


130. 
Ring  Dove 

(Streptopslia  risoria). 


129.  Hoopoe  (Upupa  epop*). 


132. 

Wood  Pigeon 
(Columba  palumbtts) 


131.  Stock  Dove 
(Columba  osnas). 


133. 


Pigeon 

(Ectopistes 

inigratoriua). 


PASSENGER  PIGEON  127 

ing-place  of  these  birds  in  Michigan  so  recently  as 
1866,  says:  "The  birds  arrived  in  two  separate  bodies, 
the  largest  of  which  formed  a  compact  mass  of 
Pigeons  at  least  five  miles  long  by  one  mile  wide.  The 
nesting  area  extended  for  a  distance  of  eight  miles 
through  hardwood  timber,  then  crossed  a  river,  .  .  . 
and  thence  stretched  through  pinewoods  about  twenty 
miles." 

These  birds  were  subjected  to  merciless  persecu- 
tion, being  shot  by  thousands  and  the  flesh  of  the 
young  used  for  food.  They  became  enormously  fat 
and  were  sometimes  killed  merely  for  the  oil  that  was 
extracted  from  the  fat.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand, 
however,  why  the  Passenger  Pigeon  should  have  be- 
come completely  exterminated  in  so  short  a  time,  as  it 
would  seem  that  a  few  straggling  flocks  or  individuals 
might  still  be  in  existence.  But  although  the  entire 
country  has  been  searched  again  and  again  by  expert 
naturalists  in  search  of  these  birds,  none  have  been  dis- 
covered in  recent  years,  those  purporting  to  be  of  this 
species  usually  proving  to  be  specimens  of  the  Mourn- 
ing Dove  or  Zenaida. 

There  are  many  species  of  Turtle  Doves,  all  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Old  World.  The  one  figured  is  frequently 
seen  in  collections.  It  is  quite  abundant  in  certain 
parts  of  the  British  Islands  during  the  summer 
months.  Another  species  commonly  seen  in  captivity 
is  cream-coloured.  These  birds  are  popularly  sup- 
posed to  have  a  strong  affection  for  each  other,  prob- 
ably from  their  habit  of  nestling  close  together  when 
perching.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Pigeons  in  general  are 
rather  quarrelsome  and  disagreeable  toward  each 


128  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

other,  the  males  in  particular  pecking  at  and  annoying 
the  females*.  See  Plate  23,  Fig.  137. 

The  Ring,  or  Barbary  Dove  is  a  near  relative 
of  the  Turtle  Dove  and  is  met  with  from  Constanti- 
nople to  India.  The  so-called  "Turtle  Dove,"  so  com- 
monly kept  in  cages,  is  really  the  Barbary  Dove, 
though  the  domesticated  birds  now  form  a  race  apart 
from  the  wild  species.  See  Plate  22,  Fig.  130. 

The  Fruit  Pigeons  of  the  Old  World  constitute  a 
very  large  family,  divided  into  many  sub-families. 
They  are  of  considerable  size,  and,  as  their  common 
name  implies,  feed  almost  exclusively  upon  fruit.  It 
is  quite  probable,  however,  that  they  also  feed  upon 
seeds,  roots  and  insects. 

The  Nicobar  Pigeon  is  an  East  Indian  species, 
chiefly  remarkable  for  the  long,  pointed,  iridescent 
feathers  growing  from  each  side  of  the  neck — a  rich 
greenish  blue  in  colour  and  very  brilliant. 

Another  common  East  Indian  form  is  the  Blood- 
breasted,  a  rather  small  species  having  a  crown  of 
feathers  and  a  conspicuous  red  spot,  closely  resembling 
blood,  in  the  centre  of  the  breast. 

The  largest  of  all  living  Pigeons  is  the  Goura,  or 
Crowned  Pigeon,  a  native  of  New  Guinea  and  some 
of  the  neighbouring  islands,  and  a  familiar  bird  in  zoo- 
logical collections.  This  bird  has  a  beautiful  crest 
composed  of  soft,  filmy  feathers  which  rise  stiffly  in  a 
fan  shape  over  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck,  and  is 
always  erect.  The  Goura  is  about  the  size  of  a  small 
Goose,  but  is  quite  differently  shaped  from  that  bird 
and  has  a  short,  thick  neck  like  the  other  members  of 
its  family.  It  has  a  curious  habit  of  shaking  its  tail 


WOOD  PIGEON— ROCK  DOVE       129 

almost  continuously.  In  colour  it  is  a  charming  bluish- 
grey  or  purplish-grey,  with  darker  shades  of  purplish- 
red  upon  the  wings.  The  eye  is  a  deep  rich  red.  The 
legs  are  long  and  heavily  scaled.  An  even  more  beau- 
tiful species,  perhaps,  is  the  Victoria  Crowned  Pigeon, 
but  it  does  not  thrive  well  in  captivity.  See  Plate  23, 
Fig.  136. 

The  Wood  Pigeon,  also  called  Ring  Dove,  is  a 
European  species,  measuring  about  seventeen  inches 
in  length.  The  female  is  hardly  distinguishable  from 
the  male,  being  very  little  smaller  and  rather  duller  in 
colour.  The  white  patch  on  the  neck  is  a  conspicuous 
mark.  Of  late  years  this  bird  has  become  very  com- 
mon in  London  parks,  where  it  is  said  to  show  not  the 
slightest  fear  of  man,  though  in  the  open  country  very 
shy  and  wary.  See  Plate  22,  Fig.  132. 

The  Stock  Dove  is  often  confused  with  the  follow- 
ing species — the  Rock  Dove — but  it  may  always  be 
distinguished  from  it  by  the  absence  of  the  patch  of 
white  above  the  tail.  It  has  somewhat  increased  in 
Europe  of  late  years,  and  shows  a  marked  preference 
for  wooded  districts.  Rabbit  burrows,  holes  in  trees, 
and  matted  ivy  are  chosen  as  nesting-sites  by  these 
birds.  See  Plate  22,  Fig.  131. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  Pigeon  family 
is  the  Rock  Dove,  since  it  is  probably  the  ancestor  of 
all  our  domesticated  races.  Readily  distinguishable 
by  the  double  black  bar  across  the  wings  and  the  white 
patch  on  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  this  bird  is  to  be 
found  only  in  a  truly  wild  state  where  caves  or  deep 
fissures  in  rocks  exist.  It  is  a  common  bird  in  Scot- 
land and  is  met  with  abundantly  on  the  west  coast  of 


130  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Ireland,  where  it  finds  suitable  breeding-places  in  the 
rugged  cliffs  facing  the  Atlantic.  See  Plate  23,  Fig. 
135. 

Though  partial  to  grain,  the  Rock  Dove  feeds 
largely  on  the  roots  and  seeds  of  various  troublesome 
weeds.  This  and  other  Pigeons  will  occasionally,  like 
Gulls,  quench  their  thirst  while  floating  on  the  water, 
always  in  going  downstream.  In  drinking,  they  do 
not  raise  the  head,  but  keep  the  bill  immersed. 

The  Pouter  Pigeon  represents  one  of  the  most  pe- 
culiar of  all  the  products  of  the  breeder.  By  long  and 
careful  selection  this  bird  has  acquired  an  enormous 
crop,  which,  when  the  bird  is  excited,  becomes  greatly 
inflated.  The  long  feathers  of  the  legs  have  also  been 
developed  by  care  in  selecting  those  birds  which  had 
legs  most  inclined  to  produce  feathers.  See  Plate  23, 
Fig.  134. 

But  the  races  of  domesticated  Pigeons  are  legion. 
Some  of  the  most  striking  varieties  are  the  Pouter, 
Fantail,  Homing,  Tumbler,  Owl  and  Carrier,  but  in 
grace  and  beauty  none  compare  with  the  wild  species. 

The  smallest  species  found  in  this  country  is  the 
Ground  Dove,  sometimes  also  called  Mourning  Dove, 
found  in  many  of  the  Southern  States,  usually  near 
the  coast.  Scarcely  more  than  six  inches  in  length, 
this  beautiful  little  bird  is  a  rosy  fawn  colour,  deli- 
cately spotted  with  different  shades  of  purple,  and  is 
almost  invisible  on  the  ground  as  it  walks  jauntily 
along,  industriously  feeding  upon  seeds  'and  small 
fruits. 

The  Mourning  Dove,  or  Carolina  Dove,  has  a  wide 
range  throughout  North  America.  The  name  is  de- 


23. 


134.  Pouter  Pigeon 
(Colnmba  livia,  var.J. 


Vv\l 


136.  Crowned  Pigeon 
(Ooura  coronata). 


137.  Turtle  Dove  (Turtur  turtur). 


ZENAIDA  DOVE— CARRIER  PIGEON  131 

rived  from  the  mournful  call  of  the  male,  which  may 
be  heard  for  a  considerable  distance.  The  Zenaida 
is  a  somewhat  smaller  form,  closely  resembling  the 
foregoing,  but  has  a  square  instead  of  pointed  tail. 
It  was  formerly  found  in  considerable  numbers  in 
summer  off  the  coast  of  Florida. 

The  White-winged  Dove  inhabits  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States  and  ranges  through  the  West 
Indies  and  Central  America.  It  is  distinguished  by 
the  white  wing-coverts  and  a  wide  black  mark  below 
the  ear. 

A  large  species  found  in  the  Western  States  is  the 
Band-tailed  Pigeon.  It  is  greyish  above,  white  below, 
has  a  white  band  at  the  back  of  the  neck  and  a  dark 
band  across  the  tail. 

The  Carrier  is  a  species  in  which  the  natural  power 
of  flight  and  the  homing  instinct  have  been  greatly 
developed.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  the  Homing 
Pigeon,  from  the  practical  certainty  with  which  it 
returns  to  its  roosting-place  after  being  carried  away. 
The  rate  of  speed  attained  by  these  birds  has  been 
closely  determined,  and  it  is  known  that  the  trip  from 
London  to  Edinburgh  has  been  made  by  them  in  con- 
siderably less  time  than  is  taken  by  the  fastest  express 
trains.  But  this  speed,  while  very  great,  is  doubtless 
excelled  by  that  of  many  other  species  of  wild  birds 
whose  habits  are  not  so  well  known.  As  might  be 
expected,  the  form  of  the  Carrier  Pigeon  is  long  and 
trim,  and  the  wing-  and  tail-feathers  are  greatly 
lengthened.  A  curious  abnormal  development  is  the 
bare  skin  above  the  beak  and  around  the  eyes. 

A  well-known  and  graceful  domestic  variety  is  the 


132          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Fantail,  in  which  the  tail  spreads  over  the  back  in  the 
manner  of  a  strutting  Turkey-cock.  This  character 
seems  to  be  permanent,  the  birds  maintaining  it  at  all 
times.  The  Tumblers  are  so  called  on  account  of  their 
habit  of  tumbling  or  falling  in  the  air  during  flight. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PARROTS  AND  CUCKOOS 
ORDERS— PSITTACI  AND  CUCULI 

PARROTS  are  quite  distinct  in  many  particu- 
lars from  any  of  the  birds  so  far  described. 
They  are  a  very  ancient  group  and  have  under- 
gone such  deep-seated  structural  changes,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  skull,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  discover 
what  their  nearest  relatives  are,  though  the  Cuckoos 
are  generally  accorded  this  honour. 

Among  the  Parrot's  many  striking  peculiarities  the 
beak  is  most  conspicuous.  Not  only  is  it  a  very  pow- 
erful weapon,  but  it  also  plays  an  important  part  in 
climbing  among  the  branches  of  trees.  It  is  heavy, 
sharply  pointed  and  recurved.  Some  species  have  the 
ability  to  hook  the  tip  of  the  beak  on  a  branch  or  the 
bar  of  a  cage  and  remain  suspended  from  it  for  hours 
at  a  time. 

The  legs  are  very  short  and  the  toes  are  arranged 
in  pairs,  two  in  front  and  two  behind ;  hence  these  birds 
are  called  Zygodactyle,  or  yoke-footed.  The  use  of  the 
foot  in  holding  food  and  conveying  it  to  the  mouth  is 
not  confined  to  Parrots,  as  certain  other  birds  have 
this  habit.  In  the  true  Parrots  there  is  no  crest,  the 
tails  are  square  and  the  upper  mandible  has  tooth-like 
notches  along  the  edge. 

133 


134  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Parrots  are  gregarious,  flying  in  large  flocks  and 
feeding,  roosting  and  nesting  in  numbers  when  pos- 
sible. They  are  remarkable  tor  their  harsh  and  pierc- 
ing voices,  and  are  extremely  noisy,  chattering  and 
scolding  and  screaming  when  alarmed  and  also  for 
pleasure.  Their  food  consists  principally  of  fruits 
and  nuts,  but  they  are  also  insect-eaters,  and  at  least 
one  species,  the  remarkable  Kea  of  Australia,  has 
developed  the  habit  of  feeding  on  the  flesh,  particu- 
larly the  liver,  of  sheep,  since  their  introduction  into 
that  country.  The  tongue  of  the  Parrot  is  short,  hard 
and  round  and  has  great  mobility.  It  is  of  much  as- 
sistance to  the  bird  in  eating,  rolling  the  food  about  in 
the  mouth  and  placing  it  in  position  for  the  beak  to 
tear  or  break  apart,  and  also  in  articulating. 

Parrots  are  among  the  most  brilliantly  coloured  of 
birds,  bright  blue,  scarlet,  yellow  and  green  being 
mingled  in  the  most  striking  contrasts  imaginable. 
Certain  species,  however,  are  quite  dull-coloured. 

Many  of  them  have  short,  square  tails,  but  the 
Macaws,  the  largest  members  of  the  family,  have  very 
long,  pointed  tail-feathers. 

The  beautiful  bloom"  which  covers  the  feathers  of 
some  Parrots  and  the  beak  and  face  of  the  African 
Grey  Parrot  is  due  to  a  kind  of  powrder  formed  by  the 
breaking  up  of  what  are  known  as  powder-down 
feathers. 

The  Grey  African  Parrot  may  be  taken  as  a  typical 
representative  of  the  tribe.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  bird 
of  moderate  size,  with  delicate  grey  plumage  over  the 
body  and  a  scarlet  tail.  This  bird  has  acquired  first 
place  among  Parrots  as  a  linguist,  and  well-trained 


29.  Red-headed  Woodpecker 
CMelanerpes  erythrocephafa*}. 


30. 

European  Cuckoo 
(Cuculus  canorus). 


32. 

Carolina 

Parrakeet 

(Conurua  caro- 

linensis). 


31.  Wryneck 
(Jynx  torquiUa) 


CAROLINA  PAROQUET— MACAWS  135 

specimens  bring  very  high  prices.  It  ranges  across 
equatorial  Africa  and  is  very  familiar  as  a  cage-bird. 
They  live  for  many  years,  in  captivity,  and  are  very 
interesting,  extremely  alert  and  performing  many 
droll  and  singular  antics.  The  nestlings  are  naked 
when  first  hatched,  but  soon  become  covered  with  a 
dense,  thick  down.  See  Plate  7,  Fig.  33. 

The  Carolina  Paroquet,  or  Conure,  was  until  late 
years  very  common  throughout  the  southern  parts  of 
the  United  States;  now  it  is  practically  extinct,  the 
only  breeding-ground  known  to  exist  being  in  one 
or  two  counties  of  Florida.  The  causes  of  its  ex- 
termination are  many,  but  probably  the  chief  one 
was  that  it  was  destructive  to  crops  and  fruit-orchards. 
These  birds  were  easily  destroyed  from  the  fact 
that  when  one  of  a  flock  was  injured  or  killed,  the 
others  would  assemble  about  it,  and  this  would  happen 
again  and  again,  so  that  a  hunter  was  able  to  shoot 
numbers  of  them  before  any  would  make  their  escape. 

The  colour  is  a  delicate  green  over  most  of  the  body, 
the  head  orange-yellow  and  the  bill  a  rather  light  flesh- 
colour.  These  birds  are  said  to  have  roosted  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  a  number  occupying  the  same  hole 
in  a  decayed  tree  and  hanging  by  their  bills  and  feet 
to  the  edges.  Whether,  under  the  protection  now  ac- 
corded it,  the  Carolina  Paroquet  will  ever  again  be- 
come common  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  This  is  the  only 
species  native  to  the  United  States.  See  Plate  7, 
Fig.  32. 

The  gaudy  Macaws,  largest  of  the  Parrot  tribe,  are 
found  only  in  South  America.  There  are  many  spe- 
cies. The  best  known  is  the  Blue  and  Yellow,  which 


136  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  a  delicate  greenish-blue  on  the  head  and  neck,  shad- 
ing into  deep  purple  as  it  nears  the  tail.  The  under- 
parts  are  a  brilliant  chrome  yellow,  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  rest  of  the  plumage.  See  Plate  8,  Fig. 
34. 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  habits  of  the  Macaws 
in  the  wild  state,  but  they  are  said  to  possess  great 
powers  of  flight,  rising  high  in  the  air  and  travelling 
long  distances  in  search  of  food,  which  consists  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  fruits.  The  sexes  are  alike  in  colouring. 
In  some  species  the  skin  below  the  eyes  is  bare  and 
wrinkled. 

The  Red  and  Blue  is  dazzling  in  the  brightness  of 
its  scarlet  and  blue  feathers,  which,  however,  are  not 
pleasing  in  texture,  being  thin  and  harsh  to  the  touch. 
These  birds  are  easily  tamed  and  are  commonly  seen 
in  captivity.  See  Plate  8,  Fig.  35. 

The  Hyacinthine  Macaw  is  a  rich  deep  blue  over 
the  entire  body,  .the  naked  skin  around  the  eye  is  a 
brilliant  yellow  and  the  tail  is  black.  In  all  these 
birds  the  feathers  are  quite  loosely  set  in  the  skin. 
The  Macaws,  like  many  others  of  the  Parrot  tribe, 
make  their  nests  in  tree-holes,  which  they  adapt  by 
means  of  their  powerful  beaks  to  suit  their  require- 
ments. 

The  Amazon  Parrots  are  a  South  American  family 
not  found  north  of  Brazil.  They  are  quite  small  and 
are  coloured  in  tones  of  brilliant  green  and  yellow. 
Many  species  are  known,  but  all  have  the  same  gen- 
eral colour  disposed  in  varying  proportions  over  the 
body.  The  species  figured  is  the  Blue-fronted  Ama- 
zon. These  birds  fly  in  small  flocks  and  feed  on  or- 


KEA— GREAT  BLACK  COCKATOO  137 

anges,  plantains,  berries  and  other  fruit.    See  Plate  8, 
Fig.  37. 

Most  notable  among  the  Australian  Parrots  is  the 
great  Kea.  Before  the  introduction  of  sheep  into  that 
island  the  food  of  this  bird  consisted  chiefly  of  fruit 
and  nuts,  but  it  speedily  developed  a  taste  for  animal 
food.  These  birds  will  seat  themselves  on  the  backs 
of  living  sheep  and  with  their  long,  sharp-pointed  bills 
tear  through  the  wool  and  flesh  in  order  to  reach  the 
liver  or  kidneys  of  their  victims,  inflicting  wounds  that 
usually  result  in  the  death  of  the  animals.  The  Keas 
are  large,  heavily  built  Parrots,  in  colour  a  dull  green- 
ish-brown over  the  whole  body,  with  the  feathers 
arranged  like  scales. 

Australia  is  also  the  home  of  the  Cockatoos,  most  of 
which  are  a  delicate  cream-white  or  rosy  colour. 
Some,  however,  are  black.  These  birds  vary  greatly 
in  size,  some  being  very  large,  others  among  the  small- 
est of  the  Parrots. 

In  the  Great  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoo  the  body  is 
a  pure  cream- white  in  tone,  the  crest  a  sulphur-yellow. 
The  under-side  of  the  wings  is  also  a  delicate  sulphur 
colour. 

The  Great  Black  Cockatoo  is  a  most  striking-look- 
ing bird  and  the  largest  of  this  family.  The  upper 
mandible  is  very  large,  with  strongly-toothed  edges. 
The  tongue  is  unlike  that  of  most  Parrots,  being  long, 
slender  and  capable  of  being  extended  beyond  the 
beak.  The  colour  of  the  plumage  is  jet  black,  with 
a  purplish  bloom  over  it,  due  to  the  white  powder 
from  powder-down  feathers.  The  head  is  decorated 
with  an  enormous  crest  of  long,  loose  black  feathers 


138  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

and  the  bare  skin  around  the  eyes  is  red  and  finely 
wrinkled. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Parrot  tribe  is 
the  Kakapo,  or  Owl-Parrot,  found  only  in  the  interior 
of  New  Zealand.  It  is  one  of  the  ground-living  spe- 
cies and  is  unable  to  fly,  except  for  very  short  dis- 
tances, although  having  fully  developed  wings,  "fhe 
colour,  in  general,  is  dark  greenish.  It  is  nocturnal 
in  habits,  hiding  during  the  day  and  coming  out  at 
dusk  to  feed  on  grass-seeds,  fruits,  and  so  on.  Its  re- 
semblance to  the  Owl  in  form  and  habits  has  given  it 
its  common  name. 

The  Little  Budgerigar,  or  Grass  Parrakeet,  is  an- 
other of  the  Australian  birds,  rather  more  of  a  ground- 
feeder  than  most  Parrots.  It  is  an  extremely  common 
cage-bird,  living  and  breeding  readily  in  confinement. 
Its  plumage  is  in  general  dark  green,  varied  in  the 
different  species  with  patches  and  mottlings  of  brown, 
blue  and  yellow.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  strong  and 
rapid,  and  while  on  the  wing  it  is  extremely  noisy. 
See  Plate  8,  Fig.  38. 

The  Helmet,  or  Ganga,  Cockatoo,  found  in  Aus- 
tralia, is  the  only  representative  of  its  family.  The 
crest  of  the  male,  which  covers  the  entire  head,  is 
red,  the  rest  of  the  plumage  a  greyish  colour.  See 
Plate  8,  Fig.  36. 

CUCKOOS 

The  Cuckoos  are  generally  regarded  as  relatives  of 
the  Parrots,  but  rather  on  account  of  anatomical  char- 
acters than  likeness  in  external  form.  The  only  re- 
spect, indeed,  in  which  these  two  groups  resemble  one 


34.  Blue  and 
Yellow  Macaw 
(Ara  ararauna). 


35.  Red  and 
Blue  Macaw 
(Ara  macao). 


38.  Zebra 

Grass  Parrakeet 

(Melopsittacus 


36. 

Helmet  Cockatoo 

(Callocephalon 

galeatum). 


cestiva). 


YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO          139 

another  externally  is  in  the  arrangement  of  the  toes, 
two  being  directed  backwards  and  two  forwards. 
This  division  of  the  toes,  however,  is  not  confined  to 
the  Parrots  and  Cuckoos,  being  shared  by  many  other 
groups  of  birds,  quite  unlike  in  other  particulars. 

There  are  a  very  large  number  of  species  of  Cuck- 
oos, showing  a  surprising  range  both  in  size  and  col- 
ouration. Some  are  wholly  black,  some  resplendent 
in  rich  metallic  emerald-green  and  copper,  while  oth- 
ers are  clad  in  sober  hues  of  grey. 

Although  comparatively  few  species  are  found  in 
America,  among  them  are  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  the  Order.  Africa  and  India  are  particularly 
rich  in  Cuckoos. 

While  the  Cuckoos  are  somewhat  solitary  in  habit, 
the  Anis,  an  exclusively  American  branch  of  this  fam- 
ily, are  gregarious.  A  number  of  them  combine  in 
building  a  nest,  in  which  several  females  lay  and  take 
turns  in  brooding  the  eggs.  Their  powers  of  flight 
are  not  strong,  but  they  are  good  walkers  and  runners. 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  is  common  in  the  eastern 
part  of  North  America,  migrating  in  winter  to  Cen- 
tral and  South  America.  It  is  greenish-grey  above, 
white  below,  the  outer  tail-feathers  black  tipped  with 
white,  the  under  part  of  the  bill  yellow,  the  upper  part 
black. 

The  Black-billed  Cuckoo  resembles  the  preceding 
species,  but  in  this  the  bill  is  wholly  black  and  the  tail 
is  grey,  very  slightly  tipped  with  white.  Its  range  is 
much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  all  this  family  is  the  Com- 
mon European  Cuckoo,  a  bird  which  is  found  over  the 


140          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

greater  part  of  the  Old  World.  Its  fame  is  due  partly 
to  its  wonderful  call,  "Cuckoo,  cuckoo!"  and  partly  to 
its  curious  parasitic  habits.  For  this  bird,  like  the 
American  Cowbird,  thrusts  the  charge  of  its  offspring 
upon  other  birds,  choosing  as  its  dupes  such  species  as 
Robins,  Hedge  Sparrows,  Wagtails,  Thrushes,  Larks 
and  Red-back  Shrikes.  The  young  Cuckoo  almost  as 
soon  as  hatched  ejects  the  offspring  of  its  foster-par- 
ents from  the  nest,  thereby  securing  an  abundance  of 
food  for  itself.  See  Plate  7,  Fig.  30. 

The  resemblance  which  the  Common  Cuckoo  bears 
to  the  European  Sparrow  Hawk,  both  in  flight  and 
colouration,  serves  it  in  good  stead  when  seeking  vic- 
tims on  whom  to  thrust  its  eggs.  The  male  Cuckoo 
attracts  the  attention  of  the  other  birds  and  draws 
them  away  from  their  nest,  in  defending  which  they  do 
not  hesitate  to  attack  even  the  Sparrow  Hawk.  The 
female  Cuckoo  watches  this  opportunity  to  steal  up 
and  deposit  her  egg  with  those  of  the  absent  birds, 
having  first  dropped  it  and  then  picked  it  up  in  her 
bill.  When  the  infuriated  pair  return,  they  either  do 
not  notice  the  additional  egg  or  are  so  thankful  to  find 
their  nursery  intact  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
egg  that  has  been  thus  cleverly  foisted  upon  them. 
The  egg  of  the  Cuckoo  is  extremely  small  compared  to 
the  size  of  the  bird  and  closely  imitates  in  colour  those 
of  the  birds  to  whose  care  it  is  committed. 

The  Ani  is  common  in  the  Bahama  Islands  and 
occasionally  seen  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  Groove-billed  Ani,  another  species  hav- 
ing the  upper  mandible  ridged,  ranges  north  through 
Mexico  into  Lower  California  and  some  of  the  South- 


ROAD-RUNNER 141 

ern  States.    In  both  the  plumage  is  bluish-black  with 
a  slight  iridescence. 

The  Road-runner,  or  Chapparal-cock,  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  members  of  the  Cuckoo  family  of  the 
southwestern  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 
It  is  a  Ground  Cuckoo — that  is,  it  frequents  the 
ground  rather  than  trees — and  consequently  has  long 
legs,  all  the  other  Cuckoos  having  conspicuously  short 
legs.  The  plumage  is  in  general  olive-brown  above, 
with  considerable  white  and  washes  of  reddish  colour, 
the  tail  is  long  and  rounded,  the  outer  feathers  black 
tipped  with  white.  The  bill  is  long  and  sharp  and  a 
strip  of  blue  and  red  skin  runs  back  from  the  eye. 
See  Plate  4%  Fig.  246. 


CHAPTER  XII 

ROLLERS,  MOTMOTS,  KINGFISHERS,  BEE-EATERS, 
HOOPOES  AND  HORNBILLS 

ORDER— CORACI^B 

THE  Order  Coracige  comprises  a  remarkable  as- 
semblage of  birds,  mostly  of  brilliant  plumage, 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  Hornbills,  of  bizarre 
shape. 

The  Rollers,  which  look  rather  like  gorgeously  col- 
oured members  of  the  Crow  tribe,  have  representatives 
all  over  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  the  whole  of 
Africa  and  central  and  southern  Asia,  but  none  in 
America.  They  are  extremely  beautiful  birds,  with 
long  tail,  long,  pointed  wings  and  rather  weak  feet. 
Their  food  consists  mostly  of  insects,  caught  on  the 
wing,  but  they  also  eat  worms  and  grubs.  The  domi- 
nant colours  in  their  plumage  are  intense  blues  and 
greens.  See  Plate  9,  Fig.  43. 

During  the  mating  season  the  males  practise  a  very 
curious  flight,  turning  and  twisting  in  the  air,  at  the 
same  time  expanding  and  contracting  the  tail.  But 
both  sexes  have  the  habit  of  "rolling"  or  turning 
somersaults  in  the  air,  which  has  given  them  their 
name.  They  breed  in  holes  in  walls,  roofs  of  houses 
and  tree-trunks,  laying  several  glossy  white  eggs,  for 

142 


MOTMOTS— KINGFISHERS          143 

which  they  make  little  or  no  nest — at  best  but  a  mass 
of  roots,  grass,  hair  and  feathers. 

The  Motmots  are  South  American  birds  about 
whose  position  there  has  been  much  controversy 
among  naturalists,  but  which  are  now  thought  to  be 
most  nearly  allied  to  the  Kingfishers.  Their  coloura- 
tion is  mostly  greenish  and  bluish.  In  appearance 
they  somewhat  resemble  the  European  Bee-eater. 
Motmots  have  a  peculiar  habit,  one  that  is  unique 
among  birds  and  the  reason  for  which  is  not  under- 
stood, of  deliberately  picking  away  a  part  of  the  web 
from  the  two  middle  tail-feathers,  leaving  a  racket- 
shaped  end  to  each.  These  feathers  are  two  inches 
longer  than  the  others,  and  it  is  said  that  even  the 
youngest  birds  of  both  sexes  begin  to  pick  at  them  as 
soon  as  they  have  grown  beyond  the  others. 

The  Lesson  Mexican  Motmot  has  the  crown  of  the 
head  dark  green,  encircled  with  brilliant  blue  feathers-. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  Blue-capped  Motmot. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  of  living  birds  are  the 
Kingfishers.  In  size  they  present  a  wide  range,  the 
largest  species,  the  Laughing  Jackass,  or  Giant  King- 
fisher of  Australia,  being  about  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  while  the  smallest  are  not  as  big  as  Sparrows. 
In  colouration  also  they  are  wonderfully  varied.  The 
species  mentioned  has  head,  throat  and  under-parts 
buff,  wings  brownish  with  the  upper  coverts  spotted 
with  blue,  the  tail  brown,  barred  with  black  and  tipped 
at  the  end  with  white.  This  bird  receives  its  name 
from  its  strange  cry,  which  it  uttered  thrice — morn- 
ing, noon  and  night. 

As  a  family,  the  Kingfishers  have  short  bodies  and 


144  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

long,  sharp  bills.  In  some  species  the  toes  are  ar- 
ranged three  in  front  and  one  behind;  in  others,  two 
in  front  and  two  behind,  as  in  the  Parrots  and  certain 
other  groups. 

Kingfishers  breed  in  holes  in  banks,  generally  by 
the  side  of  some  stream.  No  nest  is  made,  but  the 
eggs,  which  are  white  and  translucent,  are  laid  on  a 
bed  of  fishbones  and  the  hard  parts  of  Crustacea  that 
has  been  ejected  by  the  birds  after  the  soft  parts  have 
been  digested.  The  Common  European  Kingfisher 
is  small,  the  upper  parts  are  a  brilliant  blue  and  the 
lower  parts  buff  and  white.  See  Plate  9,  Fig.  40. 

The  Common  American,  or  Belted  Kingfisher,  is 
much  larger  than  the  preceding  and  has  a  well-marked 
crest.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  blue,  faintly 
streaked  with  darker  colour;  the  throat  and  sides  of 
the  neck  are  white,  as  well  as  the  under-parts;  the 
wings  are  blackish,  with  white  spots  on  the  primaries, 
and  across  the  breast  is  a  wide  band  of  blue.  The  tail 
is  barred  with  white,  except  the  two  middle  feathers, 
which  are  blue.  The  Belted  Kingfisher,  like  many 
others  of  its  tribe,  has  the  habit  of  perching  motionless 
on  a  small  bough  overlooking  a  stream  and  waiting 
until  a  fish  comes  to  the  surface,  when  it  makes  a 
quick  dart,  seizes  the  prey  in  its  beak  and  returns  with 
it  to  the  perch,  where  it  is  devoured.  The  feet  are 
very  small  in  comparison  to  the  size  of  the  bird.  Like 
the  European  species,  the  Belted  Kingfisher  nests  in 
holes,  digging  a  tunnel  in  a  bank  and  widening  it  at 
the  end  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  When  invaded, 
the  birds  will  defend  their  nests  vigorously  with  their 
sharp  bills. 


40.  European  Kingfisher 
(Akedo  istpida). 


39. 

Indian  Hornbill 
(Bueeros  bicomis). 
42. 

European  Bee-eaten 
(Merops  apiaster). 


41.  Giant  Toucan 
(Rhampastos  toco). 


44. 

African 
Trogon 

(Hapaloderma 
narina). 


43.  European  Roller  (Coradas  qarrulus). 


j BEE-EATERS— HOOPOES  145 

While  the  Kingfishers  present  some  species  which 
are  dull-coloured,  their  near  relatives,  the  Bee-eaters, 
are  all  brilliantly  coloured  birds,  green,  blue  and  a 
wonderful  rose-red  being  the  principal  types,  and 
these  colours  are,  in  some,  relieved  by  patches  of  red 
and  yellow.  They  are  confined  to  the  temperate  and 
tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World. 

Bee-eaters,  like  Kingfishers,  breed  in  holes  in  banks 
or  even  in  tunnels  bored  almost  vertically  into  the 
level  ground  and  extending  from  three  to  ten  feet. 
These  birds  have  long,  pointed  wings  and  long,  wide 
tails.  In  some  species  the  two  outer  feathers  of  the 
tail  are  longer  than  the  others.  The  bill  is  long  and 
curved  and  the  base  of  the  bill  is  provided  with  short, 
hair-like  feathers.  Bee-eaters  feed  upon  insects,  show- 
ing a  marked  partiality  for  bees  and  wasps  and  ap- 
pearing to  suffer  no  ill  effects  from  their  stings. 
These  birds  are  common  throughout  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  when  seen  in  flocks  afford  a  most  beauti- 
ful spectacle.  See  Plate  9,  Fig.  42. 

By  many  naturalists  thought  to  be  allied  to  the 
Bee-eaters  and  Kingfishers  are  the  Jacamars  of  South 
America.  In  these  birds  the  plumage  is  brilliantly 
coloured,  the  bill  is  long,  slender  and  sharp  and  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  are  protected  by  stiff  bristles. 
The  feet  are  small  and  extremely  weak  and  the  toes 
vary  in  number  in  different  species. 

The  Hoopoes  are  singularly  graceful  birds,  having 
long,  curved  and  sharply  pointed  bills  and  very  beau- 
tiful plumage.  Their  wings  are  short  and  rounded, 
legs  short,  the  feet  strong  and  armed  with  heavy  claws. 
The  Hoopoes  have  a  wide  range  over  the  whole  of 


146  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Europe,  northern  Africa  and  parts  of  Asia.  Con- 
spicuous though  its  colours  appear  to  be,  this  bird, 
when  alarmed,  has  the  habit  of  throwing  itself  flat 
upon  the  ground  and  spreading  its  wings,  when  it 
becomes  at  once  almost  invisible.  The  most  striking 
feature  of  the  Common  Hoopoe  is  its  beautiful  crest, 
which  can  be  raised  or  depressed  at  will. 

Hoopoes  breed  in  holes,  and  their  nests — composed 
of  sticks,  straw  and  a  few  feathers — give  forth  an 
almost  overpowering  smell.  This,  however,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  oil-glands  of  the  sitting  birds  and  is  not 
due  to  the  birds  feeding  upon  carrion,  as  was  once 
thought  to  be  the  case.  While  sitting,  the  female,  who 
rarely  leaves  the  nest,  is  fed  by  her  mate  with  insects 
and  worms.  The  larger  insects,  when  captured,  are 
tossed  in  the  air  and  caught  again  before  being  swal- 
lowed. See  Plate  22,  Fig.  129. 

Black  Hoopoes,  with  red  beaks  and  no  crown  of 
feathers,  are  also  found  in  Africa.  The  black  of  the 
plumage  is  brightened  by  a. metallic  gloss  of  purple 
and  green,  relieved  by  a  white  wing-patch  and  white 
markings  on  the  tail. 

The  Hornbills  are  among  the  most  remarkable  of 
living  birds,  having  bills  of  enormous  size  and  often 
further  exaggerated  by  a  huge  casque  which  extends 
backwards  over  the  top  of  the  head. 

These  birds  are  natives  of  India  and  Africa  and 
the  Malay  regions.  The  beaks  of  the  Hornbills,  in 
spite  of  their  frequently  very  great  size,  are  extremely 
light,  being  of  the  delicacy  of  filigree  work,  and  cov- 
ered externally  by  the  horny  sheath. 

The   nesting  habits    of   the   Hornbills    are   very 


INDIAN  HORNBILL  147 

strange.  After  the  eggs  have  been  laid  and  the  female 
begins  to  sit,  the  male  proceeds  to  plaster  up  with  mud 
the  hole  by  which  she  entered,  leaving  a  small  aperture 
out  of  which  she  thrusts  her  bill  to  receive  the  food 
dutifully  brought  by  her  lord  and  master.  This  is 
passed  to  her  enclosed  in  the  lining  of  his  stomach,  or 
gizzard,  which  peels  off,  enclosing  the  fruit  or  other 
food  he  has  swallowed.  She  remains  imprisoned  until 
the  young  are  fully  fledged. 

The  Homrai,  or  Indian,  Hornbill,  a  Malayan 
species,  is  a  good  example  of  this  curious  group  of 
birds.  See  Plate  9,  Fig.  39. 

There  is  one  extraordinary  exception  to  the  rule 
with  regard  to  the  lightness  of  the  beak.  In  the  Hel- 
met Hornbill,  of  the  Malay  countries,  the  forepart  of 
the  helmet,  or  casque,  which  surmounts  the  beak  is  of 
great  hardness  and  density,  and  is  used  by  Eastern 
artists  for  carving  ornaments  of  various  kinds,  many 
of  which  are  of  remarkable  beauty. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

NIGHTJARS,  SWIFTS  AND  HUMMING-BIRDS 
ORDERS— CAPRIMULGI,  CYPSELI 

IT  is  now  an  established  fact  that  the  Nightjars  are 
near  relatives  of  the  Owls.  They  may  be  re- 
garded, indeed,  as  representing  the  ancestral 
stock  from  which  the  Owls  descended. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  Nightjars  is  the 
huge  size  of  the  mouth  and  the  remarkably  small  beak, 
which  is  fringed  on  either  side  by  long,  stiff  bristles. 
These  birds  also  have  large  eyes  and  extremely  small 
feet.  The  former  are  necessary  because  the  food  is 
largely  sought  during  the  twilight  hours,  while  the 
smallness  of  the  feet  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  their 
food  is  procured  while  on  the  wing.  When  not  flying 
they  remain  motionless,  either  squatting  on  the 
ground  or  along  the  bough  of  some  tall  tree,  for  these 
birds  are  peculiar  in  that  they  do  not  perch  like  other 
birds,  with  the  body  across  the  bough,  but  along  it. 
This  unusual  method  of  perching  is  adopted  for  pro- 
tective purposes,  for  the  plumage,  which  is  always  of 
some  brown  hue,  pale  or  dark,  is  freckled  or  powdered 
with  grey,  thereby  enabling  the  bird  so  closely  to  har- 
monise with  its  surroundings  as  to  become  well-nigh 
invisible. 

The  Common  European  Nightjar  is  a  representa- 

148 


NIGHTJAR— WHIPPOORWILL      149 

tive  of  the  family  popularly  known  as  "Goatsuckers" 
from  their  supposed  habit  of  sucking  the  milk  of  goats 
and  cows — a  ridiculous  superstition,  having  no  foun- 
dation in  fact.  These  birds  are  widely  distributed 
throughout  Europe,  Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
The  Nightjar  has  a  wonderful  sailing  flight,  during 
which  it  sometimes  brings  the  wings  sharply  together 
over  the  back,  producing  a  loud  clapping.  It  also  has 
a  remarkable  "churring"  note,  uttered  during  the 
evening  hours  and  in  the  night.  See  Plate  19,  Fig. 
111. 

Two  creamy  white  eggs,  marbled  and  veined  with 
brown  and  lilac,  are  laid,  and  these  are  deposited  on 
the  bare  ground.  The  young  are  hatched  covered  with 
down,  but  are  cared  for  by  the  parents  for  some  time 
before  they  are  able  to  fly. 

The  Nightjars,  or  Goatsuckers,  of  America  are  the 
Whippoorwill,  the  Nighthawk  and  Chuck-wuTs- 
widow.  In  all  the  plumage  is  mottled  with  black, 
brown  and  grey,  and  is  soft  like  that  of  the  Owls. 

The  Whippoorwill  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to 
the  European  Nightjar,  and,  like  it,  is  nocturnal  in 
habits,  setting  forth  at  dusk  in  pursuit  of  its  prey. 
The  gape  of  the  mouth  is  very  large  and  the  bill  is  very 
small. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  The  male  has  a  white  band  across  the 
throat ;  in  the  female  it  is  buff.  The  inner  web  of  the 
three  outer  tail-feathers  is  white  in  the  male,  buff  in 
the  female.  This  bird  receives  its  popular  name  from 
its  call,  which  is  rapidly  repeated  with  the  accent  on 
the  last  syllable. 


150  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  Nighthawk  has  much  the  same  range  as  the 
preceding  and  is  frequently  confused  with  it,  although 
it  is  a  distinct  species.  The  colouring  is,  in  general, 
the  same,  but  the  Nighthawk  is  darker.  It  has  a  white 
throat-patch  and  a  white  bar  across  the  primaries. 
The  wings  are  long  and  slender,  the  tail  forked,  and 
the  bird  is  very  beautiful  in  flight  as  it  turns  and 
twists  in  pursuit  of  insects.  It  is  chiefly  nocturnal  in 
habit,  but  is  frequently  seen  early  in  the  evening  as 
well  as  on  cloudy  days.  It  has  a  peculiar  hoarse  cry. 

The  Chuck-will's-widow  is  a  more  southern  species 
than  the  other  two  mentioned  and  is  a  larger  form. 
In  the  male  the  inner  vane  of  the  outer  tail-feathers  is 
white,  the  outer  vane  barred  with  buff  and  black.  It 
has  a  loud  cry,  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 

SWIFTS 

The  Swifts  bear  a  close  superficial  resemblance  to 
the  Swallows,  with  which,  indeed,  they  are  always  as- 
sociated in  the  popular  mind.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  they  are  in  no  way  related,  the  Swifts  being 
near  allies  of  the  Nightjars.  They  are  long- winged 
birds  and  have  tremendous  powers  of  flight.  The  legs 
are  short,  the  feet  extremely  weak,  and  it  is  with  great 
difficulty  that  they  can  rise  from  level  ground.  They 
are  insect-feeders,  catching  their  prey  while  on  the 
wing.  In  the  true  Swifts  the  toes  all  turn  forward, 
enabling  the  birds  to  cling  with  ease  to  vertical  sur- 
faces. 

The  Common  European  Swift  is  very  abundant 
throughout  Europe  during  the  summer  months,  leav- 


SWIFT— HUMMING-BIRDS  151 

ing  early  in  the  autumn  for  their  winter  quarters  in 
Africa.  Their  flight  is  marvellously  rapid,  as  they 
chase  each  other  about  in  the  dusk  of  evening,  some- 
times high  in  the  air  and  sometimes  near  the  ground, 
uttering  their  shrill  cries.  See  Plate  18,  Fig.  107. 

This  bird,  which  is  known  also  as  the  Deviling, 
occurs  all  over  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  so-called  "Chimney  Swallow"  of  Eastern 
North  America  is  really  a  Swift.  These  birds  are  gre- 
garious, usually  being  seen  in  large  companies.  Origi- 
nally their  nests  were  built  in  the  holes  of  decayed 
trees,  but  many  of  them  now  use  the  chimneys  of 
houses  for  this  purpose,  building  nests  of  small  sticks 
glued  together  and  attached  to  the  walls  of  chimneys 
with  saliva.  In  perching,  they  use  the  stiff  and 
sharply  pointed  tail-feathers  as  a  prop  for  the  body 
while  clinging  to  upright  surfaces. 

There  are  seventy-five  known  species  of  Swifts  in 
the  world,  only  four  of  which  are  found  in  North 
America. 

HUMMING-BIRDS 

That  the  Humming-birds  and  Swifts  are  very 
closely  related  no  one  now  doubts,  unlike  though  they 
be  in  external  appearance. 

Confined  to  the  American  Continent,  and  ranging 
from  the  extreme  south  thereof  as  far  north  as 
Canada,  these  birds  are  by  no  means  to  be  regarded 
as  the  jewelled  darlings  of  the  tropics,  though  it  is  in- 
deed in  tropical  America  that  they  are  to  be  met  with 
in  the  greatest  plenty.  Numbering  no  less  than  four 
hundred  species,  they  present  a  relatively  great  range 


152          BIRDS    OF    THE     WORLD 

in  size,  the  largest  measuring  nine  and  a  half  inches, 
while  the  smallest  is  but  little  bigger  than  a  bumble- 
bee. In  the  matter  of  the  shape  of  the  beak  and 
tail  they  present  hardly  less  variety.  Thus  the 
beak  may  be  short  and  straight,  curved  upwards  or 
downwards,  or  drawn  out  into  a  great  probe,  consid- 
erably longer  than  the  whole  body.  The  tail  may  be 
short  and  rounded  or  long  and  Swallow-like,  and  in 
some  species  these  long  tail-feathers  cross  one  another 
in  graceful  curves,  while  in  others  these  crossed  feath- 
ers are  drawn  out  into  mere  threads,  terminating  in 
oval  expansions. 

But  it  is  on  account  of  the  exquisite  beauty  of  their 
plumage,  resplendent  in  the  most  gorgeous  metallic 
hues,  that  the  Humming-birds  have  become  so  famous. 
No  other  birds  can  vie  with  thesev  fairy-like  creatures 
in  this  respect. 

One  of  the  most  elegant,  though  by  no  means  the 
most  gorgeous  of  all,  is  the  Double-crested  Hum- 
ming-bird, a  native  of  Brazil.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  121. 

The  Coquette  Humming-bird  is  a  native  of  Cen- 
tral America.  Ten  different  species  of  Coquette 
Humming-birds  are  known,  ranging  from  Mexico 
southwards.  They  are  easily  distinguished  by  their 
crested  heads  and  the  "ruff,"  which  projects  from  the 
throat.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  122. 

Perhaps  the  most  gorgeous  birds  in  existence  in  so 
far  as  the  colouring  of  the  tail  is  concerned,  are  the 
Fire-tailed  Humming-birds.  Three  species  are 
known.  They  inhabit  Peru,  Bolivia  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  123. 


121. 

Double-crested 

Humming-bird 

(Heliactin  bilopha). 


122. 

Coquette 
(Lophornis 


124.  Topaz 
Humming- 
bird 

(Topaza  pella) 


Humming 
bird 
(Lesbia 

sparganura) 


127. 

European 

Creeper 

(Certhia 

familiaris). 


125.  Racquet-tailed 

Humming-bird 
(Spathura  underwoudi) 


126.  Wallcreeper 
(Tichodroma  mwraria). 


128.  European  Nuthatch 
(Sitta  ccesia). 


TOPAZ  HUMMING-BIRDS  153 

The  Topaz  Humming-birds  are  hardly  surpassed 
by  any  other  members  of  this  group  in  brilliancy  of 
plumage.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  two  long 
middle  tail-f  eathers>  which  cross  one  another  in  grace- 
ful fashion.  The  species  here  figured  is  a  native  of 
the  Rio  Negro.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  124. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  of  the  many  peculiarities 
which  distinguish  the  Humming-bird  is  the  curious 
way  in  which  some  develop  a  kind  of  "powder-puff" 
around  the  legs.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  Racquet- 
tailed  Humming-bird,  of  which  six  species  are  known, 
inhabiting  South  America  from  Venezuela  and  Co- 
lombia, through  Ecuador  and  Peru,  into  Bolivia. 
See  Plate  21,  Fig.  125. 

As  we  have  already  remarked,  these  birds  are  by  no 
means  confined  to  the  tropics.  They  have  been  seen 
flitting  about  the  fuchsias  of  Terra  del  Fuego  in  a 
blinding  snowstorm,  and  they  are  met  with  on  the 
lofty  mountains  of  Chimborazo  as  high  up  as  16,000 
feet,  dwelling  in  a  world  of  almost  continuous  hail, 
sleet  and  rain. 

These  wonderful  birds  feed  chiefly  on  insects  which 
harbour  amid  the  petals  of  honey-bearing  flowers.  To 
procure  these  they  have  developed  a  most  remarkable 
tubular  tongue  of  complex  structure,  which  is  so  con- 
trived as  to  suck  up  the  honey  and  insects  at  the  same 
time. 

Beautiful  as  these  birds  appear  in  pictures,  they 
are  far  more  beautiful  in  life,  for  no  picture  can  pos- 
sibly represent  the  superb  play  of  colour  which  takes 
place  with  every  movement  of  the  body.  Though 
stuffed  specimens  lose  much  of  their  beauty,  they  re- 


154  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

tain  sufficient  of  their  glory  to  dazzle  us.  At  times 
these  tiny  bodies  glow  as  with  some  internal  fire,  at 
others  they  appear  dull.  As  the  spectator  changes  his 
place,  green  turns  to  gold,  and  gold  to  black,  and 
back  again  to  gold  and  green,  and  a  dozen  other  inter- 
mediate hues,  according  to  the  intensity  and  incidence 
of  the  light.  One  must  see  Humming-birds  to  realise 
their  surpassing  beauty;  no  brush  can  depict  them  nor 
can  words  describe  them. 

The  Ruby-throated  Humming-bird  is  a  very  beau- 
tiful species,  about  three  and  a  half  inches  in  length, 
found  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  America,  breeding 
from  the  southern  border  as  far  north  as  Labrador. 
The  upper  parts  are  brilliant  green,  wings  and  tail 
brownish-grey,  and  the  throat  and  exquisite  ruby-red. 
The  female  is  similarly  coloured,  but  lacks  the  red 
throat  of  the  male.  These  birds  are  said  to  spend 
much  of  their  time  perched  motionless  in  trees,  going 
at  intervals  to  certain  places  to  feed.  They  are  re- 
markably fearless  and  may  be  closely  approached 
without  taking  alarm.  The  nests  are  beautiful  little 
structures,  lined  with  the  softest  down  and  sometimes 
with  spider-webs,  and  the  eggs  are  always  white  and 
two  in  number.  The  young  are  fed  by  the  parents  on 
small  insects,  which  they  regurgitate. 

In  the  Old  World  the  place  of  the  Humming-birds 
is  taken  by  the  Sun-birds,  which  resemble  them  in 
general  appearance  and  in  habits,  but  are  not  so  bril- 
liant in  plumage.  Their  wings  are  shorter  and  more 
rounded  and  their  feet  are  stronger.  Unlike  Hum- 
ming-birds, which  take  their  food  from  flowers  while 


SUN-BIRDS  155 


hovering  on  swiftly  moving  wings,  the  Sun-birds 
usually  perch  when  feeding.  The  male  bird  assumes 
quite  gorgeous  raiment  during  the  breeding  season, 
but  this  is  moulted  afterwards  and  replaced  by  the 
more  sober  colours  of  his  mate. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

OWLS 
ORDER— STRIGES 

BY  the  older  naturalists  Owls  were  regarded  as 
near  relatives  of  the  Accipitrine  birds,  such  as 
Hawks  and  Eagles.  This  was  because  of  their 
similar  beaks  and  claws  and  their  common  habits  in 
feeding.  It  has,  however,  been  conclusively  shown 
that  Owls  are  very  closely  related  to  the  Goatsuckers. 

These  birds  are  spread  over  a  very  large  portion  of 
the  globe,  being  found  in  all  the  continents  and  many 
of  the  islands.  They  vary  greatly  in  size,  some  being 
but  a  few  inches  in  height,  while  others  measure  sev- 
eral feet.  Most  species  are  nocturnal  in  habits,  but 
certain  others  feed  by  day.  The  plumage  of  Owls  is 
remarkably  soft  and  fluffy,  rendering  their  flight 
practically  noiseless  and  enabling  them  to  pounce 
upon  their  prey  without  giving  alarm. 

The  foot  in  most  Owls  is  feathered  to  the  toes;  the 
claws  are  remarkably  long  and  sharply  pointed  and 
the  foot  is  used  with  great  dexterity  in  seizing.  The 
outer  front  toe  and  the  hind  toe  are  placed  somewhat 
more  closely  together  than  in  most  other  birds,  but  the 
toes  are  not  divided  into  pairs,  two  in  front  and  two 
behind,  as  in  the  Parrots  and  Cuckoos.  Stiff  bristles 
project  from  the  toes  on  each  side. 

156 


OWLS  157 


The  beak  of  the  Owl,  although  sharply  hooked  and 
used  to  tear  the  prey,  is  not  nearly  so  powerful  as  in 
the  true  Birds  of  Prey,  but  more  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Nighthawk  and  Whippoorwill.  The  eyes 
are  very  large  and  are  fixed  in  their  sockets  so  that 
they  cannot  be  turned,  the  bird  being  obliged  to  move 
its  head  in  order  to  see  at  the  side  or  behind  it.  The 
eyelids  are  heavy,  and  the  nictitating  membrane,  or 
inner  eyelid,  is  fully  developed.  Any  one  looking  at 
an  Owl  in  the  daytime  will  see  this  thick  membrane 
frequently  sliding  across  the  eyeball  as  the  bird  gazes 
sleepily  about. 

Owls  are  fierce  and  aggressive  in  character.  When 
disturbed,  they  fluff  out  their  feathers,  lower  their 
heads,  and  give  vent  to  a  loud,  hissing  sound,  at  the 
same  time  clattering  their  mandibles  together.  When 
in  this  attitude,  nothing  in  the  bird  world  is  more 
sinister  in  appearance.  The  voice  of  Owls  is  unlike 
that  of  any  other  bird,  and  while  it  differs  in  various 
species,  is  yet  somewhat  similar  in  all.  The  word 
"hoot"  is  used  to  describe  it.  Sometimes  this  note  is 
uttered  once  and  repeated  at  intervals,  and  again  it 
will  be  given  several  times  in  quick  succession.  It  is 
varied  by  strange  coughs  and  hisses,  and  at  times  is 
very  loud  and  far-reaching. 

Owls  have  always  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the 
traditions  and  literature  of  the  peoples  of  the  world. 
They  were  practically  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  Greeks,  and  Egyptians,  who  looked  with 
reverence  upon  this  strange,  usually  silent,  bird,  and  it 
is  even  now  used  as  an  emblem  of  wisdom,  though  by 
no  means  a  very  intelligent  bird. 


158  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  nocturnal  Owls  feed  principally  at  dusk,  when 
the  small  mammals  upon  which  they  prey  are  also 
abroad.  Some  species,  such  as  the  Great  Horned  Owl 
of  North  America  and  the  Eagle-Owl  of  Europe, 
feed  on  quite  large  game,  such  as  wild  Turkeys  and 
small  deer,  but  the  food  of  most  Owls  consists  of  such 
small  creatures  as  mice,  rats,  frogs,  lizards,  and  small 
reptiles.  Most  species  have  the  remarkable  habit  of 
swallowing  their  food  whole,  when  not  too  large,  and 
afterwards  ejecting  the  hair,  bones,  and  feathers,  in 
the  form  of  small  pellets. 

The  nests  are  usually  made  in  the  hollows  of  trees, 
and  the  eggs  are  always  white.  The  number  varies  in 
different  species.  The  young  are  hatched  covered 
with  down,  and  are  carefully  tended  by  the  parents 
until  they  are  able  to  leave  the  nest. 

Owls  are  sombrely  coloured,  most  of  them  being 
mottled  in  various  shades  of  brown  and  buff  inter- 
mingled with  white  and  sometimes  black,  but  in  no 
case  is  there  any  really  brilliant  colour  in  the  plumage. 
They  have  remarkable  control  over  the  form  of  their 
bodies,  at  times  making  themselves  appear  long  and 
slender;  at  others,  short  and  rounded. 

These  birds  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
those  that  have  ear-tufts,  or  horns,  and  those  that  lack 
them,  the  former  embracing  a  large  number  of  species. 

The  largest  and  perhaps  best  known  Owl  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Great  Horned  Owl,  celebrated 
both  for  its  ferocity  and  for  its  remarkable  voice.  It 
feeds  on  large  game,  when  pressed  by  hunger  attack- 
ing even  the  wild  Turkey.  This  sagacious  bird,  how- 
ever, often  eludes  its  enemy  by  waiting  until  the  Owl 


GREAT  HORNED  OWL  159 

is  about  to  descend  upon  it,  then  spreading  the  tail 
feathers  over  its  back  so  that  the  Owl  slides  off  the 
slippery  surface  and  the  Turkey  has  time  to  escape 
before  a  second  attack  can  be  made. 

During  the  day  this  Owl  flaps  helplessly  about  in 
the  cover  of  the  woods,  endeavouring  to  conceal  itself 
from  its  enemies,  but  at  dusk  it  emerges  and  stares 
about  with  its  magnificent  yellow  eyes  opened  to  the 
widest  extent.  Its  sight  then  is  remarkably  keen,  the 
tiniest  mouse  being  seen  at  a  great  distance  and 
silently  pounced  upon.  The  claws  of  the  Great 
Horned  Owl  are  extremely  long  and  sharp,  and  the 
grasp  of  the  foot  very  powerful.  This  Owl  shows 
great  preference  for  the  flesh  of  the  skunk,  almost 
every  specimen  captured  reeking  with  the  nauseating 
odour  of  that  animal.  The  long  talons  are  driven  into 
the  vitals,  and  the  victim  is  quickly  despatched. 

In  this  species  the  ear-tufts  are  greatly  developed, 
and  are  raised  several  inches  above  the  side  of  the  head, 
giving  the  singular  horned  appearance.  In  colour 
individuals  vary  considerably,  but  in  general  they  are 
different  shades  of  buff  and  brown,  splotched  and 
striped  in  a  confused  pattern.  This  intermingling  of 
colours  is  of  great  service  in  concealing  the  bird  from 
view,  and  when  seated  in  an  upright  position  on  the 
stump  of  a  dead  tree,  it  is  almost  identical  in  tone  and 
therefore  practically  invisible. 

The  Great  Eagle-Owl  of  Europe  differs  but  little 
from  the  Great  Horned  Owl  of  this  country.  See 
Plate  5,  Fig.  18. 

The  voice  of  the  Great  Horned  Owl  is  loud  and 
startling.  Mr.  Chapman  describes  it  as  " a  loud,  deep- 


160          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

toned  whoo,  hoo-hoo-hoo,  whooo,,  whooo,  the  syllables 
all  on  one  note,  and  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a 
bass-voiced  dog  barking  in  the  distance.  A  much  rarer 
call,"  he  says,  "is  a  loud,  piercing  scream,  one  of  the 
most  blood-curdling  sounds  I  have  ever  heard  in  the 
woods."  At  other  times  hisses  and  groans  come  from 
the  throats  of  these  birds — apparently  a  sort  of  con- 
versation with  them. 

The  Snowy  Owl  is  an  Arctic  species  of  both  the 
Old  World  and  the  New.  In  the  winter  it  wanders  as 
far  south  as  the  United  States.  It  is  a  large  and 
handsome  form,  differing  considerably  in  colour  in 
individuals.  Some  are  almost  pure  white  over  the 
whole  body,  while  others  are  thickly  spotted  with 
black.  The  eyes  are  extremely  large  and  light  yellow 
in  colour,  forming  a  striking  contrast  to  the  beautiful 
white  of  the  feathers  around  them.  See  Plate  5,  Fig. 
23. 

This  bird  sees  with  perfect  ease  in  the  daytime,  and 
is  very  shy,  keeping  well  out  of  the  range  of  a  gun. 
Its  food  consists  of  small  mammals,  Ptarmigan, 
Grouse,  and  Ducks,  and  it  is  said  also  to  catch  fish. 

The  Little  Owl  is  an  Old  World  form,  about  eight 
inches  in  length.  A  native  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
it  has  of  late  years  been  introduced  into  the  British 
Islands,  where  it  now  breeds  well  and  is  increasing  in 
numbers.  See  Plate  5,  Fig.  22. 

The  Coquimbo,  or  Burrowing  Owl,  is  found  only  in 
North  America,  and  is  the  only  species  that  lives  and 
breeds  underground.  It  is  about  ten  inches  in  length, 
has  no  ear-tufts,  and  the  feet  are  but  slightly 
feathered.  The  legs  are  longer  in  proportion  than 


COQUIMBO— BARN  OWL  16T 

are  those  of  most  Owls.  The  Western  species  lives 
in  burrows  made  by  prairie-dogs — although  certainly 
not  welcomed  by  them.  But  the  Florida  Burrowing 
Owl  digs  a  hole  for  itself.  They  are  day-feeding, 
being  perfectly  able  to  endure  the  fierce  glare  of  the 
sun  in  the  regions  in  which  they  live. 

The  Tawny  Owl  is  an  interesting  species,  having 
two  distinct  phases  of  plumage,  some  individuals 
being  very  grey,  while  others  are  red  in  colour.  This 
Owl  is  further  peculiar  in  that  the  apertures  of  the 
ears  are  not  alike  in  the  two  sides  of  the  head,  though 
both  are  covered  by  a  large  flap  of  skin.  See  Plate  5, 
Fig.  19. 

The  European  Long-eared  Owl  is  another  species 
in  which  the  apertures  of  the  ears  are  unlike.  It  is 
common  in  European  countries,  and  is  very  beneficial, 
destroying  large  numbers  of  mice  and  other  small 
rodents.  The  American  Long-eared  Owl  is  similar 
in  appearance.  See  Plate  5,  Fig.  20. 

The  Long-eared  Owls  and  the  Short-eared  Owls, 
though  very  much  alike  superficially,  differ  conspicu- 
ously in  their  nesting-habits.  The  former  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  deserted  nests  of  Crows,  Hawks, 
Herons,  or  squirrels,  while  the  Short-eared  species 
nests  on  the  ground  in  hollows  made  in  weeds  and 
sedge.  The  eggs  vary  in  number  from  six  to  twelve. 
During  a  great  plague  of  voles  which  occurred  in 
Scotland  a  few  years  ago,  these  Owls,  finding  food  in 
abundance,  reared  broods  twice  in  the  year  and  double 
the  normal  in  number. 

The  Barn  Owl,  or  Monkey- faced  Owl,  found  in 
both  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  is  not  only  a  beau- 


162  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

tiful  species,  but  forms  a  group  by  itself  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  Owls,  'differing  from  them  in  structure. 
The  colouration  differs  in  certain  parts  of  its  range. 
The  eyes  are  almost  black,  as  in  the  Tawny  Owl, 
while  in  most  Owls  the  colour  of  the  iris  is  a  bright 
orange-yellow.  The  Barn  Owls  are  without  ear-tufts, 
and  the  disks  about  the  eyes,  instead  of  being  round, 
are  irregular  in  shape.  See  Plate  5,  Fig.  21. 

The  young  Barn  Owl  is  at  first  clothed  in  a  downy 
coat  of  white,  and  this  is  replaced  by  plumage  like  that 
of  the  adult  bird.  In  most,  if  not  all,  other  Owls  the 
down-feathers  of  the  nestlings  are  replaced  by  a  plum- 
age that  is  intermediate  between  that  and  the  adult 
feathers,  and  this  is  worn  until  autumn,  when  the  true 
feathers  appear. 

The  Barred  Owl,  or  Hoot  Owl,  is  a  common  species 
in  Eastern  North  America.  The  under  parts  are 
white,  the  breast  barred  with  dark  colour,  and  the 
sides  streaked.  The  eyes  are  dark,  and  the  toes  are 
feathered. 

The  Great  Grey  Owl  is  a  northern  species,  occa- 
sionally seen  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  very  large 
form,  having  the  upper  parts  dark  irregularly  marked 
with  white,  the  under  parts  streaked,  and  the  legs  and 
toes  feathered  to  the  claws. 

The  Little  Screech  Owl  is  perhaps  the  best  known 
of  our  American  Owls,  being  common  in  the  woods 
throughout  the  Eastern  States.  Its  voice  has  a  low 
and  tremulous  quality,  and  is  often  heard  in  the  even- 
ing hours.  A  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  that  it  has 
two  phases  of  colour,  one  reddish  in  tone,  the  other 
greyish,  both  varieties  being  found  at  the  same  time 


AMERICAN  HAWK  OWL  163 

in  the  nest.     The  Screech  Owl  has  well-marked  ear- 
tufts. 

The  American  Hawk  Owl,  so  called  from  its 
Hawk-like  appearance  and  character,  is  another  spe- 
cies found  in  the  northern  part  of  North  America  and 
occasionally  seen  in  Europe.  It  is  dark  brown  above, 
spotted  with  white,  and  has  the  under  parts  barred. 
The  tail  is  longer  than  in  most  Owls.  This  bird  is  one 
of  the  most  rapacious  of  the  Order  to  which  it  belongs. 
As  in  all  Owls,  the  female  is  larger  than  the  male. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TROGONS,  TOUCANS,  ^ND  WOODPECKERS 
ORDERS—  TROGONES  AND  PICI 


precise  relationship  of  these  birds  has  not 
yet  been  decided,  though  probably  all  are  akin. 
The  Toucans  and  Woodpeckers  are  certainly 
more  nearly  related  one  to  another  than  to  the 
Trogons,  which  form  a  rather  isolated  group. 

The  Trogons  are  represented  by  many  species,  some 
of  which  are  of  surpassing  beauty.  Some  are  natives 
of  tropical  America  ;  others  occur  as  resident  species  in 
Africa,  a  large  part  of  India,  and  the  Malayan  coun- 
tries. In  ancient  times  they  occurred  in  Europe, 
fossil  remains  of  Trogons  having  been  found  in 
France.  The  American  species  are  distinguished  by 
their  barred  tails. 

As  their  small,  weak  feet  would  indicate,  these  birds 
are  tree-living,  and  feed  while  suspended  in  the  air, 
their  diet  consisting  of  berries  and  insects.  The  sexes 
differ  greatly  in  colouration,  the  males  being  much 
more  brilliantly  attired.  The  Trogons  are  "yoke- 
footed,"  like  Cuckoos  and,  Parrots,  but  they  differ 
from  them,  as  well  as  from  all  other  known  birds,  in 
that  it  is  the  first  and  second,  instead  of  the  first  and 
fourth,  toes  which  are  directed  backwards. 

The  Narina  Trogon  is  an  African  species,  ranging 

164 


•      NARINA  TROGON— TOUCANS       165 

from  northeast  Africa  to  Cape  Colony.  It  is  a  very 
shy  bird,  hiding  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the  forests,  and 
is  seldom  seen.  It  has  a  curious  wheezing  call.  See 
Plate  9,  Fig.  44. 

The  Resplendent  Trogon  is  a  large  and  beautiful 
species  found  in  Central  America.  The  upper  parts 
of  the  body  are  golden-green,  the  breast  and  under 
parts  a  brilliant  red,  the  middle  tail-feathers  are  black, 
while  the  outer  ones  are  white,  barred  with  black. 

In  the  Cuban  Trogon  the  upper  parts  are  green, 
the  top  of  the  head  washed  with  blue,  the  throat, 
breast,  and  under  surface  of  the  tail  a  delicate  grey, 
the  primaries  black,  spotted  with  white,  and  the  bill 
scarlet. 

But  the  most  magnificent  of  all  the  Trogons  is 
the  Quetzel,  of  Central  and  South  America.  The 
upper  parts  of  this  bird  are  brilliant  green  and  blue, 
the  under  parts  a  gorgeous  crimson,  and  it  has  a  long 
and  gracefully  flowing  tail  consisting  of  the  length- 
ened coverts,  which  extend  from  one  to  two  feet 
beyond  the  other  tail-feathers.  In  olden  times  the 
native  chiefs  wore  these  plumes  on  days  of  high 
festivals. 

TOUCANS 

So  far  as  outward  appearance  goes,  the  Toucans 
have  many  characters  resembling  the  Hornbills,  the 
most  conspicuous  among  them  being  the  enormous 
beaks.  On  this  account  they  are  frequently  mistaken 
one  for  the  other  by  those  who  are  not  very  familiar 
with  them,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  these  birds  are 
not  closely  related. 


166  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

There  are  several  species  of  Toucans,  some  of  which 
are  sombrely  attired,  but  many  of  them  are  quite 
richly  coloured.  They  range  in  size  from  a  rather 
large  thrush  to  about  two  feet  in  length. 

As  in  the  Hornbills,  the  beak  is  extremely  light  and 
porous,  ensheathed  in  a  very  thin  case  of  brightly 
coloured  horn,  which  is  serrated,  or  notched,  along  the 
cutting  edges.  They  have  the  curious  habit  of  sleep- 
ing with  the  head  turned  back  and  the  tail  brought 
forward,  so  that  both  rest  on  top  of  the  back. 

Both  Toucans  and  Hornbills  are  awkward  on  the 
ground,  hopping  about  with  the  legs  far  apart.  In 
the  trees,  they  spring  lightly  from  branch  to  branch. 
They  stare  about  them  with  a  curious  slow  movement 
of  the  head  and  beak  from  side  to  side,  unlike  that  of 
most  birds,  which  is  quick  and  rather  jerky.  All  these 
birds  are  fruit-eaters,  but  their  diet  is  varied  by  in- 
sects, as  well  as  small  birds  and  mammals. 

One  of  the  largest  of  the  Toucans  is  the  Toco,  or 
Giant  Toucan.  It  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
South  America,  and  is  met  with  in  rather  large  flocks. 

The  Short-billed  Toucan  is  a  smaller  species,  found 
from  Costa  Rica  to  Northern  Columbia.  The  plum- 
age is  black  and  red,  and  the  bill  is  varied  with  red, 
blue,  green,  and  yellow.  See  Plate  9,  Fig.  41. 

WOODPECKERS 

Woodpeckers  are  an  extremely  interesting  group 
of  birds  that  illustrate  to  a  remarkable  degree  what 
is  meant  by  "adaptation  to  environment."  That  is 
to  say,  they  show,  by  their  many  singularities  of  struc- 
ture, that  they  have  become  changed,  or  "adapted," 


WOODPECKERS  167 

so  as  to  fit  them  for  their  peculiar  mode  of  life.  The 
most  obvious  of  these  changes  are  in  the  shape  of  the 
beak,  the  tail,  and  the  feet.  Their  food  consists  of 
insects  and  grubs  which  they  find  concealed  in  the 
bark  of  trees.  The  beak  is  wedge-shaped  and  sharply 
pointed,  and  has  a  horny  sheath  of  unusual  hardness, 
enabling  the  bird  to  peck  away  the  bark  in  search  of 
its  prey,  and  also  to  dig  the  holes  in  which  it  makes 
its  nest.  The  toes  are  placed  two  in  front  and  two 
behind,  and  are  furnished  with  long  claws,  which  serve 
the  purpose  of  grappling-irons.  Finally,  the  tail- 
feathers  are  of  a  curious  spiny  character,  and  these 
serve  as  supports  when  the  bird,  having  firmly  fixed 
itself  by  its  claws,  begins  its  work  of  excavation.  The 
Woodpeckers  are  essentially  tree-dwellers,  and  after  a 
peculiar  fashion,  for  they  spend  most  of  their  lives, 
not  in  perching  on  the  boughs,  but  in  climbing  up  and 
down  the  trunk.  The  spiny  tail-feathers  are  devel- 
oped in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  hammering  which 
must  be  performed  to  gain  a  livelihood.  They  afford, 
in  short,  a  very  effective  leverage  during  the  time  that 
the  beak  is  being  used  as  a  "pick." 

But  the  peculiarities  of  the  Woodpeckers  do  not 
end  with  these  external  characters.  The  tongue,  for 
example,  is  of  enormous  length,  and  its  roots,  or  sup- 
ports, are  excessively  developed,  so  that  they  curve 
round  and  over  the  skull,  to  be  finally  stowed  away  in  a 
channel  above  the  beak.  This  tongue  is  used  as  a  trap 
for  the  capture  of  ants  and  other  insects.  Thickly 
covered  with  a  sticky  saliva,  which  has  been  compared 
to  bird-lime,  this  wonderful  and  worm-like  organ  is 
suddenly  thrust  out  amid  swarms  of  ants,  which  are 


168  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

borne  back  into  the  mouth,  struggling  helplessly. 
The  saliva  is  secreted  by  a  pair  of  enormous  glands 
on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  head  of  Woodpeckers 
is  set  in  a  peculiar  manner,  being  at  right  angles  with 
the  body — a  natural  position,  considering  that  the 
bird  must  remain  upright  in  feeding,  when  the  head 
is  used  as  a  hammer. 

Nearly  all  Woodpeckers  have  a  crest  at  the  back 
of  the  head,  which  may  be  slightly  raised  or  lowered. 
This  crest  is  usually  a  brilliant  red,  and  in  many 
species  it  is  the  only  spot  of  bright  colour  on  the  bird. 

America  is  peculiarly  rich  in  Woodpeckers,  about 
one  half  of  the  three  hundred  and  fifty  known  species 
occurring  in  this  continent  and  displaying  a  wonderful 
diversity  of  plumage.  These  birds,  however,  are 
found  all  over  the  world,  except  in  the  Australian 
region,  Madagascar,  and  Egypt. 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker  is  the  largest  of  the 
American  species,  measuring  twenty  inches  in  length. 
The  general  colouring  is  black  and  white,  and  there 
is  a  large  scarlet  crest.  Running  from  the  eye  down 
the  neck  and  half  way  down  the  back  on  each  side  is 
a  conspicuous  white  stripe.  The  lower  half  of  the 
primaries  is  white,  and  the  under  parts  are  a  glossy 
black.  The  bill  is  ivory  white.  This  handsome  bird 
is  extremely  shy,  and  is  found  only  in  the  forests  of 
the  Gulf  States  and  in  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley. 
See  Plate  6,  Fig.  25. 

The  Great  Black  Woodpecker  is  a  large  European 
species,  in  which  the  plumage  is  entirely  black  except 
for  the  red  crest.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
acclimatise  these  birds  in  the  British  Islands,  but  with- 


24.  Gray-headed  Lessi  shotted 

Green  Woodpecker  Woodpecker 

v,     .  (Dryobates 

(Gecmus  canus).  minor). 


Woodpe^kerf 
(Campephilus  principals). 


26.  Green  Woodpecker 
(Gecinus  viridis). 


28.  Great  BI 
WoocrjpR&k 
(Picus  ntartiusj. 


RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER      169 

out  success.  This  bird  corresponds  to  our  Pileated 
Woodpecker,  being  about  the  same  size.  See  Plate  6, 
Fig.  28. 

The  Red-headed  Woodpecker  is  found  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  whole  head, 
neck,  and  throat  in  this  species  is  red;  the  upper  part 
of  the  back  is  black,  as  well  as  the  primaries  and  tail; 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  white.  The  combination 
of  colours  makes  this  bird  quite  conspicuous  when  on 
the  wing.  See  Plate  7,  Fig.  29. 

The  Green  Woodpecker  is  very  common  in  Great 
Britain,  where  it  is  also  known  as  the  Yaffle,  as  well  as 
by  many  other  provincial  names.  The  female  has 
black  upon  the  cheeks  where  the  male  has  red.  See 
Plate  6,  Fig.  26. 

The  Grey-headed  Green  Woodpecker  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  the  preceding  species,  and  is  common  through- 
out Europe  and  Asia.  See  Plate  6,  Fig.  24. 

The  Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker  is  a  very  small 
form  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  parts  of  Africa.  Its 
plumage  is  mingled  black  and  white,  and  there  is  a 
red  crest  at  the  back  of  the  head.  Owing  to  its  small 
size  and  its  partiality  for  tall  trees,  such  as  elms  and 
poplars,  this  bird  is  not  often  seen.  Its  near  relative, 
the  Great  Spotted  Woodpecker,  is  a  much  larger  bird, 
and  corresponds  to  the  Hairy  Woodpecker  of  this 
country ;  while  the  smaller  form  more  nearly  resembles 
our  Downy  Woodpecker.  See  Plate  6,  Fig.  27. 

The  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker  is  common  in  the 
eastern  part  of  North  America.  It  feeds  on  the  juice 
of  trees,  which  it  extracts  by  boring  holes  in  the  bark. 
The  tongue  in  the  Sapsuckers  is  not  extensile,  as  in 


170          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  true  Woodpeckers.  In  this  species  the  crown 
and  throat  are  red,  the  back  is  irregularly  marked 
with  black  and  white,  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  there  is 
a  black  patch  on  the  breast,  and  the  under  parts  are 
pale  yellow. 

The  Common  Flicker,  or  Golden-winged  Wood- 
pecker of  the  United  States,  is  a  very  beautiful  bird, 
differing  in  habits  from  the  other  members  of  its  fam- 
ily. In  colour  it  is  very  charming,  a  delicate  pinkish 
grey  over  most  of  the  body,  the  under  surface  of  wings 
and  tail  a  bright  golden  yellow,  the  under  parts  white, 
washed  with  yellow  and  thickly  spotted  with  black. 
There  is  a  band  of  red  across  the  back  of  the  neck,  a 
black  crescent  on  the  breast,  and  a  black  patch  on  each 
side  of  the  throat.  This  bird  has  many  popular  names, 
High-hole  being  one  of  the  most  common. 

Unlike  other  Woodpeckers,  the  Flicker  spends  much 
time  on  the  ground.  It  nests  in  holes  in  trees,  how- 
ever, like  other  members  of  the  group,  and  lays  from 
five  to  nine  white  eggs. 

Though  in  its  colouration  unlike  the  typical  Wood- 
peckers, the  Wryneck,  or  Cuckoo's-mate,  nevertheless 
is  of  the  Woodpecker  tribe.  In  the  soft,  mottled  grey 
and  brown  colours  of  its  plumage,  this  bird  more 
closely  resembles  the  Goatsuckers.  The  tail-feathers, 
too,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  figure,  are  not  stiff  and 
pointed,  as  in  the  typical  Woodpeckers,  but  are  soft 
and  rounded.  These  birds  never  use  their  beak,  which 
is  small  and  delicate,  as  a  pick;  hence  they  have  no 
need  of  support  from  spiny  tail-feathers.  But  the 
Wryneck  is  undoubtedly  a  Woodpecker,  in  spite  of 
these  differences,  as  is  shown  by  the  structure  of  the 


WRYNECK  171 


tongue,  as  well  as  by  other  common  characters.    See 
Plate  7,  Fig.  31. 

Like  all  the  other  Woodpeckers,  the  Wryneck  lays 
several  glossy  white  eggs  in  the  hollow  of  some  decay- 
ing tree,  making  no  nest,  but  using  the  rotten  wood 
at  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  When  disturbed,  the 
sitting-bird  makes  a  loud  hissing  noise,  which  induces 
one  to  suppose  that  the  hole  is  occupied  by  a  snake, 
and  this  usually  secures  freedom  from  further  •inter- 
ference. On  this  account,  as  well  as  from  the  remark- 
able way  in  which  the  bird  twists  its  neck,  the  name 
Snake-bird  has  been  bestowed  upon  it.  When  taken 
in  the  hand,  the  Wryneck,  like  some  other  birds, 
feigns  death  so  successfully  that  it  often  escapes. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  PASSERINE  BIRDS 
ORDER— PASSERIFORMES 

IN  this  chapter  we  shall  describe  some  families  of 
what  are  known  as  the  Passerine,  or  Perching- 
birds.  These,  though  preserving  a  remarkable 
uniformity  in  so  far  as  their  anatomical  characters  are 
concerned,  present  an  amazing  variety  superficially, 
as  in  colouration  and  in  the  form  of  beak,  so  much 
so  that  nearly  six  thousand  distinct  species  are  known 
to  science. 

Though  all  are  essentially  tree-dwellers,  many 
species  have  come  to  pass  much  of  their  time  in  low 
scrub  or  in  the  open  country.  Some  possess  remark- 
able powers  of  flight,  while  others  are  practically 
unable  to  fly. 

This  great  series  may  be  divided  into  two  more 
or  less  sharply  defined  groups,  based  partly  upon  the 
structure  of  the  syrinx,  or  voice-organ,  and  partly 
upon  other  anatomical  characters. 

The  first  of  these  groups  may  be  sub-divided  so  as 
to  form  three  smaller  groups,  distinguishable  partly 
by  means  of  characters  afforded  by  the  voice-organ, 
and  partly  by  other  anatomical  characters;  all  of 
which  are  too  complicated  to  come  within  the  scope 
and  purpose  of  this  volume. 

172 


COCK-OF-THE-ROCK— BELL-BIRD  173 

The  first  of  the  two  large  groups  just  referred  to 
form  the 

SUB-ORDER — CLAMATORES 

The  birds  herein  placed,  though  regarded  as  non- 
singing  birds,  yet  include  a  few  species  with  melodi- 
ous voices;  though  none  have  a  song  comparable  to 
that  of  such  songsters  as  the  Nightingale  or  the 
Thrush  or  the  Mocking-bird.  But  it  is  not,  as  has 
been  said,  the  quality  of  the  song  so  much  as  the 
number  of  song-muscles  and  their  arrangement  that 
is  considered  in  this  connection. 

Included  among  the  Clamatores  are  the  birds 
known  as  the  Broadbills,  or  Eurylgemidse,  of  East 
India,  some  of  which  are  very  beautiful.  Very 
closely  allied  to  some  of  these  are  the  Cotingas,  of 
which  the  most  gorgeous  is  the  Cock-of-the-Rock,  a 
native  of  South  America.  This  bird  is  shy  and 
solitary  in  habits,  living  among  the  rocks  along  the 
river-banks.  The  whole  plumage  is  brilliant  orange- 
red,  with  the  exception  of  the  primaries,  which  are 
brown  with  yellow  tips.  A  thick  crest  of  feathers  runs 
from  beak  to  the  back  of  the  head,  and  long,  soft 
plumes  fall  from  the  upper  wing-  and  tail-coverts. 

During  the  mating  season,  the  birds  gather  in  small 
companies  and  the  males  go  through  with  a  weird 
kind  of  dance,  in  which  they  droop  their  wings,  wave 
their  crests  from  side  to  side,  and  hop  along  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  See  Plate  19,  Fig.  112. 

Closely  related  to  the  Cock-of-the-Rock  are  the 
Bell-birds,  also  of  South  America,  of  which  four 
species  are  known.  The  Naked-throated  Bell-bird, 


174  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  one  illustrated,  is  pure  white  in  colour.  Another 
species  has  a  long,  fleshy  wattle  hanging  from  the 
base  of  the  beak  like  the  wattle  of  a  Turkey.  It  stands 
straight  up  when  the  bird  is  excited.  The  home  of 
the  Naked-throated  Bell-bird  is  in  Brazil,  where  the 
gloomy  forests  resound  with  its  wonderful  notes. 
These  resemble  the  sounds  made  by  a  clear  ringing 
bell,  or,  according  to  some  travellers,  the  sound  pro- 
duced by  a  blacksmith  when  he  strikes  a  piece  of  steel 
on  an  anvil.  The  song  is  heard  at  all  hours  of  the  day, 
and  when,  as  often  happens,  several  of  these  birds  are 
in  the  same  neighbourhood  and  answer  one  another's 
calls,  a  wonderful  concert  is  the  result.  See  Plate  10, 
Fig.  48. 

AMERICAN  FLYCATCHERS 

Among  the  non-singing  Passerine  birds  are  classed 
the  American  Flycatchers.  This  family  numbers 
about  three  hundred  and  fifty  species,  and  is  confined 
exclusively  to  the  New  World,  By  far  the  greater 
number  of  these  are  found  in  the  region  of  the  tropics, 
but  as  many  as  thirty-five  species  occur  in  North 
America.  In  colouring  the  sexes  are  much  alike,  and 
the  nestlings  resemble  the  parents.  The  prevailing 
tints  are  olive-grey  and  brown,  with  touches  of  yellow 
on  the  under  parts.  A  few  species,  however,  have 
patches  of  bright-coloured  feathers. 

Flycatchers  are  notable  for  the  width  of  the  beak 
opening,  as  in  the  Goatsuckers,  and  for  the  bristles  at 
the  angle  of  the  mouth  which  are  of  assistance  in  cap- 
turing their  insect  prey.  The  method  of  pursuing  and 
catching  insects  is  characteristic  of  this  entire  family. 


KINGBIRD— PHCEBE 175 

The  bird  perches  upon  the  branch  of  a  tree,  and, 
motionless  and  upright,  awaits  the  passing  of  victims. 
When  one  comes  within  sight,  the  Flycatcher  darts 
from  its  perch,  pursues,  and  usually  captures  the  fly- 
ing insect  with  a  snap  of  the  bill,  and  invariably 
returns  to  the  branch  from  which  it  started.  Preying 
almost  entirely  as  they  do  upon  insects,  these  birds  are 
necessarily  migratory,  leaving  their  northern  summer 
haunts  for  a  warmer  climate  in  winter. 

The  Kingbird,  or  Tyrant  Flycatcher,  is  one  of 
the  largest  of  American  Flycatchers,  and  gets  its 
name,  "Tyrant,"  from  its  pugnacious  disposition. 
Owing  to  its  powers  of  flight  and  its  great  courage, 
this  bird  attacks  without  fear  much  larger  species, 
such  as  Hawks,  Owls,  and  Crows,  driving  them  away 
from  its  chosen  haunts  whenever  they  appear.  Tak- 
ing its  place  in  the  air  above  the  larger  bird,  the  king- 
bird maintains  the  relative  position  and,  with  a  note  of 
alarm,  now  and  again  dives  swiftly  down  and  stabs  the 
offender  with  his  sharp  beak.  Neither  Crows  nor 
Hawks  make  any  attempt  at  defence,  but  fly  from  the 
assaults  of  their  tiny  enemy. 

Although  the  common  name,  Bee-Martin,  is  applied 
to  the  Kingbird  because  of  the  farmers'  belief  that  it 
preys  upon  bees,  many  authorities  claim  that  only  the 
drones  are  eaten.  But  as  to  this  there  seems  to  be 
some  doubt. 

The  general  colouring  of  the  Kingbird  is  greyish- 
slate  above,  the  tail  black,  slightly  tipped  with  white. 
Both  male  and  female  have  an  orange-red  crest, 
which  is  only  visible  when  the  feathers  are  raised. 

The  Phoebe  is  distinguished  by  a  dark  crest  on  the 


176  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

head,  white  on  the  outer  tail-feathers,  yellowish-white 
under  parts,  and  black  bill.  This  bird  is  fond  of 
nesting  near  houses,  showing  little  fear  of  man.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  its  monotonous  note.  The 
Phoebe  is  the  only  member  of  its  family  found  in 
numbers  in  the  Southern  States  during  the  winter. 

The  Wood  Pewee  is  a  slightly  smaller  bird  than 
the  preceding.  The  colouring  is  generally  dull  dark 
olive,  and  the  wings  have  two  whitish  bars.  The  upper 
mandible  only  is  black.  The  wings  are  considerably 
longer  than  the  tail,  as  in  one  other  species,  the  Olive- 
sided  Flycatcher,  and  the  legs  are  short.  The  Wood 
Pewee  nests  on  the  limbs  of  trees,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  above  the  ground,  and  the  nest,  like  that  of 
the  Humming-bird,  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  bough  on  which  it  rests. 

The  Great  Crested  Flycatcher  is  the  largest  of  this 
family,  being  slightly  more  than  nine  inches  in  length. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  greyish-brown,  with 
tints  of  olive  green;  the  throat  and  breast  are  pearl- 
grey,  the  rest  of  the  under  parts  bright  yellow.  A 
peculiar  habit  of  this  bird  is  the  lining  of  its  nest  with 
a  cast  snake-skin,  for  what  reason  is  not  known.  The 
Crested  Flycatcher  is  a  shy  bird,  keeping  well  out  of 
sight,  and  its  habits  are  not  so  well  known  as  those  of 
some  other  members  of  its  family. 

SUB-ORDER — OSCINES 

We  pass  now  to  the  second  of  our  two  great  groups 
of  Passerine  birds.  This  group,  which  is  divisible  into 
two  sections,  is  made  up  of  what  are  known  as  the 


19. 


'  >'  ''-     - 


109. 

European  House  Martin 
(Ckelidonaria  urbica). 


v 


no. 

k  Swallow 
(Riparia  riparia). 


Nightjar"' 
rimulgtis  europasus). 


of  the  Rock 
(tiupizola  rupicola). 


13. 
Paradise 
Tanager 
(Calospiza  iatao). 


114.  Jackdaw 
(Colceus  monedula). 


LYRE-BIRD  177 


Oscinine  Passeres,  or  Oscines,  which  are  distinguished 
by  having  the  voice-muscles  inserted  into  the  ends  of 
the  windpipe.  Strange  to  say,  though  all  the  birds 
included  in  the  second  section  should  prove  fine 
songsters,  only  a  few  are  really  good  performers. 
Crows,  for  example,  are  deficient  as  singing  birds, 
yet  they  have  the  same  voice-organ  as  the  Nightingale. 
But  then,  even  in  the  human  race,  the  voice-muscles 
of  those  who  are  tuneless  do  not  differ  essentially  from 
those  of  the  greatest  singers. 

The  curiously  aberrant  type  known  as  the  Lyre- 
bird represents  the  first  of  the  two  sections  just  re- 
ferred to.  By  most  authorities  this  bird  is  placed 
apart  from  the  true  Oscines,  and  made  to  form  a  sub- 
group, or  section,  because  its  voice-muscles,  though 
resembling  those  of  the  "true  Oscines,"  are  not  the 
same  in  number;  but  for  our  purpose  this  distinction 
may  be  ignored.  The  Lyre-bird  is  a  native  of 
Australia.  Three  species  are  known,  that  which 
forms  the  subject  of  our  illustration  being  found  in 
New  South  Wales.  See  Plate  14,  Fig.  73. 

These  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  form 
of  the  tail,  the  two  outer  feathers  of  which  are  of  great 
length,  and  so  curved  as  to  form  a  general  resemblance 
to  the  old-fashioned  musical  instrument  known  as 
the  lyre — hence  the  name  of  the  bird.  The  inner  tail- 
feathers  have  a  peculiar  structure,  and  a  soft  and 
filmy  appearance. 

One  authority  says:  "These  birds  inhabit  pre- 
cipitous sandy  gullies  in  thick  forests  with  tangled 
undergrowth.  Each  cock  has  a  walk,  or  playground, 
and  scrapes  little  hillocks,  or  hollows,  for  dancing 


178  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

places,  where  he  struts  or  pirouettes  with  erect  tail 
and  drooping  wings,  scratching,  pecking,  and  singing 
at  intervals.  The  normal  cry  is  a  loud,  liquid 
gurgling  sound;  but  they  are  clever  mockers,  imitat- 
ing a  cock's  crow,  a  hen's  cackle,  a  dog's  bark  or  howl, 
the  Laughing  Jackass's  note,  or  even  the  setting  of  a 
saw."  They  lay  but  one  egg,  in  a  bulky  nest  of  sticks, 
lined  with  moss  and  feathers,  and  placed  either  in  the 
fork  of  a  tree  or  on  the  ground.  The  nestling  is 
remarkable  for  the  fact  that  it  is  covered  with  long 
and  woolly  down — a  feature  shared  by  no  other 
Passerine  bird. 

All  the  birds  now  left  for  consideration  here  belong 
to  the  second  section,  and  are  commonly  called  the 
true  Oscines,  having  from  five  to  seven  pairs  of 
singing-muscles . 

These  will  be  described  in  order,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  according  to  their  grade  of  evolution.  That 
is,  we  shall  begin  with  those  species  which  are  appar- 
ently least  specialised,  least  modified,  and  proceed  to 
those  which  are  most  specialised,  or  modified. 

SWALLOWS 

According  to  this  plan,  we  commence  with  the 
Swallow  tribe.  There  are  many  species  of  these  birds, 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  world.  All  have 
long,  slender,  but  powerful  wings,  and  very  weak 
feet,  showing  that  much  of  their  life  is  spent  in  flight 
and  that  the  feet  have  become  feeble  from  disuse.  In 
many  species  the  tail  is  forked.  They  feed  almost 
entirely  upon  insects,  captured  in  the  air,  their  deeply 


BARN  SWALLOW— BANK  SWALLOW  179 

cleft  mouths,  like  those  of  the  Goatsuckers,  being  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  bill  is  very  short,  and 
slightly  curved  at  the  tip.  Swallows  have  a  very 
beautiful  flight,  unlike  that  of  any  other  bird.  They 
are  gregarious,  and  just  before  migrating  in  the  fall, 
assemble  in  enormous  numbers.  Swallows  lend  much 
charm  to  the  life  of  the  country  during  the  summer 
months,  and  they  are  certainly  most  useful  birds  from 
an  economic  standpoint.  Like  its  relative,  the  House- 
Martin,  the  Swallow  builds  a  nest  of  mud,  on  rafters 
in  barns  and  outhouses,  and  sometimes  in  trees.  Two 
broods  are  usually  reared  before  the  summer  is  over. 
The  species  figured  is  the  Common  Barn  Swallow 
of  Europe.  See  Plate  18,  Fig.  108. 

The  House-Martin  may  easily  be  distinguished 
from  the  Swallow,  having  a  large  patch  of  white  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  the  under  parts  all 
white.  Besides  this,  the  Martin  has  legs  and  toes 
completely  covered  with  short,  downy  feathers.  This 
bird  usually  builds  its  nest  under  the  eaves  of  houses, 
and  lays  white  eggs,  while  those  of  the  true  Swallow 
are  spotted.  The  House-Martin  is  not  represented  in 
this  country.  See  Plate  19,  Fig.  109. 

The  Bank  Swallow  is  a  small  form  corresponding 
to  the  Sand  Martin  of  Europe,  a  dull  greyish-brown 
above  and  white  below.  Unlike  the  Swallow  and 
the  Martin,  it  nests  in  holes  in  sandbanks,  labori- 
ously tunnelling  long  chambers  in  which  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  from  two  to  three  feet  from  the  entrance. 
And  this  work  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
feeblest  of  beaks  and  feet.  See  Plate  19,  Fig.  110. 

This  species  is  very  similar  to  the  Rough-wing 


180  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Swallow,  which  also  usually,  though  not  invariably, 
nests  in  sandbanks. 

The  Purple  Martin  is  the  largest  member  of  this 
tribe  in  North  America.  The  male  is  a  beautiful 
glossy,  bluish-purple  colour  over  the  entire  body,  dark- 
ening on  wings  and  tail,  while  the  female  is  a  duller 
hue  above  and  greyish-white  below.  This  bird  is  quite 
common  throughout  the  Southern  States,  where  it  is 
valued  for  its  usefulness  as  well  as  for  its  beauty  and 
sweet  song. 

Two  other  species  of  Swallow  common  in  America 
are  the  Cliff  Swallow,  distinguished  by  its  reddish 
upper  tail-coverts  and  bluish-black  back  striped  with 
white,  and  the  Tree  Swallow,  all  blue  above  and  white 
below.  The  former  builds  nests  of  mud  in  cliffs  or 
under  the  eaves  of  houses  and  barns,  while  the  latter 
nests  in  trees  or  in  boxes  provided  for  its  use. 

EUROPEAN  FLYCATCHERS 

The  European  Flycatchers  are  included  among  the 
true  Oscines,  or  singing  birds,  and  rank  next  in  order 
to  the  Swallows. 

The  two  best  known  species  are  the  Pied  and  the 
Spotted  Flycatchers,  both  of  which  are  common  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  in  the  British  Islands.  In 
general  characteristics  they  resemble  their  American 
cousins,  preying  upon  insects  which  they  capture  in 
the  same  manner.  See  Plate  10,  Fig.  47. 

The  general  colouring  of  the  Spotted  Flycatcher 
is  light  brown,  darkening  on  wings  and  tail,  throat 
and  breast  paler  and  streaked  with  brown.  This  bird 


SHRIKES  181 

builds  its  nest  on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  while  the  Pied 
Flycatcher  makes  use  of  the  hollows  in  trees. 

SHRIKES 

The  Flycatchers  are  comparatively  feeble  birds,  but 
their  near  relatives,  the  Shrikes,  or  Butcher-birds,  are 
much  more  formidable.  They  are  considerably 
larger,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  almost  Hawk- 
like beaks,  which  are  used  to  tear  living  prey,  such  as 
smaller  birds,  mice,  and  so  on.  Although  numbering 
about  two  hundred  species,  these  are  mostly  confined 
to  the  Old  World,  only  two  being  native  to  America. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  Northern  Shrike,  a  rather 
large  bird,  measuring  over  ten  inches  in  length,  grey 
upon  the  upper  parts,  with  black  wings  and  tail, 
marked  with  white.  The  bill  is  powerful  and  hooked 
like  that  of  a  Hawk.  This  bird  has  a  characteristic 
straightforward  flight,  flying  close  to  the  ground  with 
much  flapping  of  the  wings,  and  rising  suddenly 
upward  to  perch. 

The  Northern  Shrike  breeds  in  the  far  north, 
migrating  southward  in  winter.  Its  nest  of  twigs  and 
grass  is  usually  placed  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  The 
Great  Grey  Shrike  of  Europe  closely  corresponds  to 
this  species.  See  Plate  10,  Fig.  46. 

All  the  birds  of  this  family  have  the  curious  habit 
of  killing  and  impaling  their  prey  on  thorns  and 
twigs,  presumably  for  future  use.  It  is  on  this 
account  they  have  received  the  name  Butcher-birds. 
The  English  name,  Flesher,  comes  from  an  old 
English  word  for  butcher.  Preying  as  it  does  upon 


182  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

many  harmful  insects  and  mammals,  and  especially 
upon  the  noxious  English  Sparrow,  ornithologists 
declare  that  this  bird  well  deserves  to  be  protected. 

The  Red-backed  Shrike  is  another  common  Euro- 
pean species.  See  Plate  10,  Fig.  45. 

The  Loggerhead  Shrike  is  a  smaller  form  than  the 
northern  species,  but  closely  resembles  it  in  colouring. 
This  bird  does  not  fly  forth  in  search  of  prey,  but,  like 
the  Flycatchers,  perches  and  waits  for  it  to  come 
within  view.  Its  power  of  sight  is  remarkably  keen, 
and  the  grasshoppers,  small  snakes,  and  lizards  upon 
which  it  chiefly  feeds  are  detected  at  long  distances. 
This  bird  also  often  impales  its  victims  on  thorns, 
capturing  more  than  it  can  devour  at  one  time.  The 
Loggerhead's  notes  are  harsh  and  guttural,  unlike 
those  of  the  Northern  Shrike,  some  of  whose  notes  are 
very  musical. 

TITMICE 

The  Titmice  are  small  birds,  of  rather  pugnacious 
disposition,  and  commonly  known  in  this  country  as 
Chickadees.  It  is  a  moot  point  among  ornithologists 
as  to  whether  or  not  they  are  related  to  the  Shrike 
family.  These  little  birds  feed  largely  on  the  eggs  and 
larvae  of  insects  that  are  injurious  to  trees,  and  so  are 
of  great  benefit  to  man.  They  have  short,  stout  bills, 
and  the  nostrils  are  concealed  by  bristles. 

A  common  English  species  is  the  Blue  Tit,  a 
courageous  little  bird,  especially  during  the  time  that 
it  is  sitting  on  its  eggs.  The  nest  is  usually  made  in 
the  hole  of  a  tree-trunk,  sometimes  in  deserted  Wood- 
peckers' holes,  from  which  intruding  fingers  are  often 


46.  Great  Gray  Shrike* 
(Lanitis  excubitor).     J ' '  ' 


45. 

Red-backed  Shrike 
f     (Lanius  collurio). 


48.  Bell  Bird 

(Chasmortynckus 

niveus). 


49. 

Tree  Pipit 
(Anthw  tri^ 


50.  Water  Ouzel 
(Cincltts  cinclus). 


• 


GREAT  TIT— LONG-TAILED  TIT    183 

hastily  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  a  hissing  sound 
from  the  bird,  resembling  the  warning  note  of  a  snake. 
This  bird  may  be  readily  induced  to  take  up  a  resi- 
dence in  any  desired  spot  by  means  of  nesting-boxes 
hung  in  convenient  situations.  See  Plate  15,  Fig.  83. 

The  Great  Tit  is  a  larger  bird  than  the  preceding, 
but  similar  in  appearance.  It  may  readily  be  dis- 
tinguished, however,  by  the  broad  black  stripe  which 
runs  down  the  middle  of  the  breast.  The  Great  Tit 
frequently  attacks  smaller  birds,  beating  out  their 
brains  with  its  powerful  beak.  See  Plate  15,  Fig.  84. 

The  Coal  Tit  and  the  Crested  Tit  require  to  be 
carefully  sought,  being  of  shy  and  retiring  disposition. 
The  Coal  Tit  is  met  with  in  many  of  the  less  populated 
districts  throughout  the  British  Islands,  but  the  other 
species  mentioned  is  rarely  seen  except  in  Scotland. 
See  Plate  15,  Figs.  80,  82. 

While  Titmice  are  mainly  insect-feeders,  ripe  pears 
and  apples  prove  an  irresistible  attraction,  especially 
for  the  Blue  Tit,  and  on  this  account  it  is  disliked  by 
fruit-growers.  In  spite  of  its  depredations,  however, 
it  is  a  most  useful  bird. 

The  Long-tailed  Tit  is  the  smallest  of  the  family, 
and  a  very  handsome  little  bird.  In  the  art  of  nest- 
building  it  is  most  skilful.  Oval  in  shape,  the  nest  is 
covered  on  the  outside  with  moss  and  lichens,  and  lined 
with  feathers.  It  is  suspended  from  a  branch  usually 
not  far  from  the  ground,  and  harmonises  so  perfectly 
with  its  surroundings  that  even  an  expert  nest-hunter 
has  difficulty  in  finding  it.  When  sitting,  the  long 
tail  of  the  bird  is  turned  over  the  back,  so  that  beak 
and  tail  often  poke  out  of  the  doorway  at  the  same 


184  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

time.  The  capacity  of  this  nursery  is  as  wonderful  as 
its  structure,  since  as  many  as  sixteen  youngsters  have 
been  found  together  inside,  though  usually  the  number 
ranges  from  seven  to  ten.  See  Plate  14,  Fig.  78. 

The  Chickadee  is  a  very  common  little  bird  of  this 
family  in  eastern  North  America,  easily  distinguish- 
able by  its  glossy  black  cap  and  throat,  white  at  side  of 
head  and  neck,  white  outer  webs  of  wing- feathers,  and 
buffy  sides.  It  nests  in  holes  in  stumps  and  old  trees, 
lining  the  cavities  with  feathers,  grasses,  and  so  on. 

This  attractive  little  bird  is  not  at  all  shy,  and  is 
often  seen  about  houses  in  the  winter  months.  Feed- 
ing chiefly  upon  insects  in  summer,  in  cold  weather  it 
will  eat  seeds,  nuts  and  a  variety  of  other  food,  when 
obtainable,  showing  much  adaptability.  Another 
common  name  for  the  Chickadee  is  Black-capped 
Titmouse. 

The  Tufted  Titmouse  is  a  resident  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  upper  parts  are,  in  general,  a  grey 
colour,  the  under  parts  white,  with  a  reddish  tinge  on 
the  sides.  The  forehead  is  black,  and  the  crest  is  well 
marked.  Its  notes  are  louder  and  not  so  pleasing  as 
those  of  the  Chickadee,  and  they  are  uttered  almost 
continuously. 

NUTHATCHES 

These  birds  are  near  relatives  of  the  Titmice,  and 
four  out  of  the  twenty  known  species  are  found  in 
North  America.  As  a  rule,  the  Nuthatches  are  in- 
conspicuous in  colour,  black,  white,  and  grey  pre- 
vailing. They  resemble  the  Woodpeckers,  and  like 


NUTHATCH  185 


them,  pass  their  lives  on  the  trunks  of  trees.  The 
tail  differs  from  that  of  the  Woodpeckers,  however, 
in  that  the  feathers  are  soft,  and  not  spiny,  and  there- 
fore it  is  not  used  as  a  support  for  the  body  when 
feeding.  The  Nuthatch  is  able  to  climb  up  and  down 
the  trunks  of  trees  with  equal  facility.  See  Plate  21, 
Fig.  128. 

Holes  in  tree-trunks  are  generally  used  as  nesting- 
places,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  a  bed  of  dry 
leaves  is  made  on  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  When  the 
entrance  is  too  large,  the  bird  reduces  it  by  the  use  of 
mud  to  the  desired  size — a  hole  just  large  enough  to 
pass  through. 

This  bird  receives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  wedg- 
ing nuts  in  crevices  of  the  bark  of  trees  and  hammer- 
ing, or  hatching,  them  until  the  shell  is  broken.  Dur- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  year  insects  form  a  considerable 
portion  of  its  diet,  and  hard  seeds  of  many  kinds  are 
also  eaten. 

The  White-breasted  Nuthatch  is  a  resident  species 
throughout  eastern  North  America.  It  closely  re- 
sembles the  European  species  figured.  All  the  birds 
of  this  family  are  of  stocky  build,  have  strong  and 
sharply  pointed  beaks,  sharp  claws  fitted  for  climbing 
and  short,  square  tails.  The  White-breasted  Nut- 
hatch has  the  crest  and  forepart  of  the  back  glossy 
black,  the  rest  of  the  upper  parts  blue-grey,  with  some 
white  feathers  in  wings  and  tail.  It  nests  in  holes  in 
trees,  like  the  Old  World  species,  sometimes  excavat- 
ing them  for  itself,  like  the  Woodpeckers. 

In  winter  this  bird  is  frequently  seen  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States  in  company  with  the  Downy 


186  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Woodpecker  and  the  Chickadee.  It  is  easy  to  identify 
from  its  habit  of  running  up  and  down  the  trunks 
of  trees,  usually  in  a  spiral  course,  searching  for  grubs 
concealed  in  the  bark. 

The  Red-breasted  Nuthatch  is  a  more  northern  spe- 
cies than  the  preceding,  but  is  similar  in  appearance, 
except  for  a  black  stripe  which  runs  through  the  eye 
to  the  back  of  the  head,  and  for  the  reddish  instead  of 
white  breast.  Its  notes,  too,  are  quite  different  in 
tone,  and  neither  species  is  remarkable  for  its  melodi- 
ous voice. 

TREE-CREEPERS 

Like  the  foregoing  family,  these  birds  are  tree- 
dwellers.  Like  the  Nuthatch,  the  Tree-creeper  climbs 
about  the  trunks  of  large  trees;  but  in  one  point  it 
differs  conspicuously — in  the  form  of  its  tail.  In  the 
Nuthatch  the  tail  is  short  and  soft;  in  the  Tree- 
creeper,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  long  and  composed  of 
stiff  and  pointed  feathers,  as  in  the  Woodpecker. 
Since  the  Nuthatch  uses  its  beak  as  a  hammer,  after 
the  manner  of  the  Woodpecker,  and  the  Tree-creeper 
does  not,  this  curious  difference  is  not  easy  to  under- 
stand, for  the  Woodpecker's  tail  is  supposed  to  have 
developed  as  a  support  for  the  body  and  to  give  force 
to  the  hammering  of  the  beak.  This  prop  seems  to  be 
unnecessary  in  the  Nuthatch.  The  Tree-creeper's 
beak,  indeed,  could  never  be  used  hammer-fashion, 
for  it  is  slender  and  curved  and  is  used  for  the  capture 
of  insects.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  127. 

The  American  Brown  Creeper  is  the  only  one  of  the 
twelve  recognised  species  found  in  America.  It  cor- 


15. 


79. 

Red  Crossbill 
(Loxia  curvirostra) 


80. 

Coal  Tit 
(Panu  ater) 


Crested  Titmouse 
(Lophophanes  cristatus). 


Lapland  Longspur 
(Calcarius  lappmi 


84. 

Greater  Titmouse 
(Parus  major). 


83.  Blue 

Titmouse 

(Parue  coeru- 

leus). 


85. 

Yellow  Hamme 
(Emberiza  citri- 
nella). 


86. 

Corn  Bunting 
(Miliaria  miliaria). 


..         '•     ;• '      _ 


BROWN  CREEPER— WREN          187 

responds  to  the  European  form,  being  black,  white 
and  buff  above,  and  white  below.  It  breeds  in  the 
North  and  in  winter  migrates  southward  to  the  Gulf 
States.  Owing  to  its  small  size,  sober  colours  and  the 
skill  with  which  it  contrives  always  to  keep  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  between  itself  and  human  observers,  this  bird 
is  seldom  seen.  Its  faint  little  twitter,  uttered  as  it 
climbs  about,  is  very  pleasing. 

The  beautiful  little  Wall-creeper  is  found  only  in 
Asia  and  certain  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  of  a  soft  grey- 
ish colour,  with  white  spots  on  the  outer  tail-feathers 
and  crimson  wing-coverts.  The  appearance  of  this 
bird  has  been  noted  two  or  three  times  in  the  British 
Islands.  See  Plate  21,  Fig.  126. 

WRENS 

The  Wren  family  includes  a  great  number  of  very 
small  birds,  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  world, 
being  especially  abundant  in  the  New  World.  They 
are  not  found,  however,  in  Africa  and  the  Australian 
region.  They  are  insect-feeders  and  therefore  migra- 
tory in  their  habits.  Wrens  are  active,  nervous  birds, 
with  musical  voices. 

The  common  American  House  Wren  is  found 
nearly  everywhere  in  North  America.  The  colouring 
is  brownish  above,  indistinctly  barred  with  darker  col- 
our, and  greyish  below.  Like  all  the  other  members 
of  this  family,  it  builds  domed  nests,  frequently  in 
outhouses  and  other  places  in  proximity  to  human 
beings.  The  wings  are  short  and  rounded  and  the 
short  tail  is  usually  carried  in  a  vertical  position. 


188  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  Common  Wren  of  Europe  closely  corresponds 
to  this  species.  It  is  popularly  known  as  "Jenny 
Wren"  and  is  a  favourite  character  in  the  folk-lore  of 
England.  See  Plate  13,  Fig.  68. 

Other  familiar  American  species  are  the  Winter 
Wren,  the  Carolina  Wren  and  the  Marsh  Wren. 

This  great  family  embraces  not  only  the  typical 
Wrens,  but  the  Mocking-birds,  the  Catbirds  and  the 
Thrashers. 

Among  the  song-birds  of  America  the  Mocking- 
bird easily  takes  first  place,  its  wonderful  vocal  pow- 
ers being  equalled  only  by  those  of  the  celebrated 
Nightingale  of  Europe.  Not  only  are  its  own  notes 
remarkably  melodious,  but  it  has  the  ability  to  imitate 
closely  the  voices  of  other  birds  as  well  as  many  other 
sounds  in  Nature.  See  Plate  4$,  Fig.  247. 

In  colour  the  Mocking-bird  is  ashy  above,  darken- 
ing on  wings  and  tail  and  paling  to  dingy  white  below. 
The  lower  half  of  the  quill- feathers  of  the  wings  is 
white,  and  some  of  the  tail-feathers  are  also  marked 
with  white.  The  sexes  are  almost  undistinguishable 
in  colour,  though  the  male. has  a  little  more  white  in 
the  plumage. 

These  birds  are  very  common  in  our  southern 
States.  They  show  little  fear  of  man  and  are  often 
seen  in  city  streets  and  parks.  Mocking-birds  sing 
morning  and  evening,  and  on  moonlight  nights  are 
frequently  heard  all  night.  They  build  clumsy-look- 
ing nests  in  low  trees,  not  far  from  the  ground,  and  in 
thickets,  and  the  eggs  are  greenish,  spotted  thickly 
with  brown. 

While  not  equalling  the  Mocking-bird  in  musical 


CATBIRD— WAXWINGS  189 

ability,  its  near  relative,  the  Catbird,  yet  has  a  charm- 
ing song  of  its  own,  as  well  as  considerable  power  of 
mimicry.  It  is  bluish-grey  above,  with  crown  and 
tail  black  and  under  tail-coverts  brownish  red,  some- 
times spotted  with  slate  colour.  This  bird  is  of  a  lively 
and  active  disposition  and  very  friendly  and  intelli- 
gent. One  of  its  commonest  notes  resembles  the  mew- 
ing of  a  cat,  and  from  this  it  derives  its  name. 

The  Catbird  is  very  abundant  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States,  breeding  from  the  Gulf  States 
to  Canada.  It  makes  a  coarse  nest  of  twigs,  leaves, 
and  so  on,  and  lays  greenish-blue  eggs. 

Another  well-known  American  member  of  this  fam- 
ily is  the  Brown  Thrasher,  a  frequenter  of  under- 
growth and  thickets,  especially  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  upper  parts  are  a  rich  reddish  brown,  the  under 
parts  whitish,  heavily  streaked  with  dark  brown,  ex- 
cept on  the  throat  and  middle  of  the  breast.  The 
wing-coverts  are  tipped  with  white.  The  Brown 
Thrasher  in  form  closely  resembles  the  Mocking-bird, 
and,  like  it,  has  the  ability  to  mimic  other  birds.  Its 
own  song,  heard  during  the  breeding  season  only,  is 
loud  and  very  melodious,  and  is  repeated  for  a  long 
time. 

WAXWINGS 

A  very  remarkable  family  is  that  which  comprises 
the  Waxwings  of  North  America  and  northern 
Europe  and  Asia.  Numbering  but  few  species  and 
of  uncertain  lineage,  the  birds  of  this  family  have  ac- 
quired notoriety  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  inner 
wing-quills  and  tail-feathers  are  tipped  with  horny 


190          BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

plates,  having  the  appearance  of  small  drops  of  red 
sealing-wax. 

The  Waxwing,  or  Bohemian  Chatterer,  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  Arctic  regions.  It  is  very  rarely  seen 
in  the  Atlantic  States,  but  more  often  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  interior  of  the  United  States.  It  has  visited 
the  British  Islands  periodically  for  upwards  of  two 
centuries,  sometimes  in  great  numbers.  See  Plate  18, 
Fig.  106. 

The  Cedar  Waxwing  is  a  much  more  common  spe- 
cies in  this  country,  breeding  from  Virginia  north- 
ward. The  upper  parts  in  this  bird  are  greyish,  the 
forehead,  chin,  and  a  line  through  the  eye  black.  The 
tail  is  yellow  at  the  end,  and  the  secondaries  and  some- 
times the  tail  have  the  small  wax-like  tips  that  give 
the  name  to  the  species.  It  is  slightly  smaller  than 
the  preceding  form,  but,  like  it,  has  a  conspicuous 
crest.  Mrs.  Bailey  says:  "The  squads  of  Cedar-birds 
fly  evenly  on  a  level  with  the  tree-tops,  in  close  ranks 
often  of  five,  seven  or  nine.  Frequently,  when  under 
full  headway,  they  suddenly  wheel  and  dive  down  to 
an  apple-tree  for  a  meal  of  canker-worms." 

ORIOLES 

The  true  Orioles  are  an  Old  World  family  exclu- 
sively, and  as  to  their  exact  relationship,  there  is  some 
difference  of  opinion  among  naturalists.  In  the  young 
the  under  parts  are  streaked  in  a  way  that  is  thought 
to  ally  the  group  with  the  Starlings. 

The  Golden  Oriole  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
birds,  the  body  plumage  being  bright  yellow,  with 
black  wings  and  tail.  The  female  is  more  soberly  col- 


GOLDEN  ORIOLE 191 

oured — dull  green  above,  the  under  parts  streaked 
with  grey.  This  species  winters  in  Africa,  migrating 
to  southern  and  central  Europe  in  the  spring,  and 
occasionally  breeding  in  the  British  Islands.  All  the 
family  have  sweet,  flute-like  voices.  See  Plate  11, 
Fig.  51. 

The  nest  of  the  Golden  Oriole  is  a  very  cleverly 
made,  cradle-like  structure  of  bark,  wool,  and  grass- 
stems,  woven  together  and  suspended  beneath  the 
fork  of  a  small  branch  of  a  tree. 

The  American  family  is  a  large  one,  embracing  a 
hundred  and  fifty  species,  or  more,  most  of  which 
make  their  home  in  the  tropics.  They  differ  struc- 
turally from  the  Old  World  Orioles,  as  well  as  in 
many  of  their  habits,  but,  like  them,  feed  upon  insects, 
fruit,  and  seeds.  They  are  found  in  widely  different 
localities,  frequenting  woodlands,  plains,  and  marshes, 
showing  much  adaptability  to  environment.  Certain 
species  are  fine  singers,  while  others  have  harsh  and 
disagreeable  voices. 

The  most  conspicuous  member  of  the  family  is  the 
Baltimore  Oriole,  found  quite  abundantly  throughout 
eastern  North  America.  The  head,  throat,  upper  part 
of  the  back,  and  middle  tail-feathers  are  black,  some 
of  the  wing- feathers  are  edged  with  white,  and  the  rest 
of  the  plumage  is  a  rich  orange  colour. 

Like  the  Old  World  Oriole,  this  bird  builds  a  sus- 
pended nest  of  grasses,  bark,  hair,  and  so  on,  near  the 
end  of  a  small  branch.  The  work  of  constructing  the 
nest  seems  to  be  done  by  the  female,  the  male  bird 
assisting  her  by  bringing  some  of  the  material  used. 


192  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  eggs  are  whitish,  with  irregular  dark  lines  and  a 
few  spots. 

One  of  our  best  known  American  song-birds  is  the 
Bobolink,  Reed-bird  or  Rice-bird.  The  male  of  this 
species  has  two  distinct  phases  of  plumage.  In  the 
breeding  season,  the  head,  throat,  and  under  parts  of 
wings,  and  tail,  are  black,  the  fore  part  of  the  back 
buffy,  the  scapulars  and  upper  tail-coverts  dingy 
white.  In  the  fall,  after  the  breeding  season,  these 
feathers  are  all  moulted,  and  the  Bobolink  assumes 
the  streaked  olive  and  buff  colours  of  the  female  and 
young.  At  this  time,  during  their  migration  to  South 
America,  these  birds  stop  on  their  way  to  visit  the  rice- 
fields  of  the  Southern  States,  gorging  themselves  with 
the  rice  until  they  become  very  fat.  When  in  this  con- 
dition they  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  and  are  shot 
in  large  numbers  to  supply  the  table. 

The  Bobolink  has  a  rich,  melodious  voice.  His  song 
has  been  described  as  "an  irrepressible  outburst;  a 
flood  of  melody  from  a  heart  overflowing  with  the  joy 
of  early  summer." 

Another  very  common  bird  of  this  country  is  the 
Red-winged  Blackbird.  Its  name  is  taken  from  the 
colour  of  its  lesser  wing-coverts,  which  are  a  bright 
crimson,  showing  conspicuously  in  flight,  but  not 
visible  when  the  wing  is  closed.  The  middle  wing- 
coverts  are  yellowish,  all  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is 
glossy  black.  The  colouring  of  the  female  is  much  like 
that  of  a  common  Sparrow. 

This  bird  breeds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Can- 
ada, and  winters  southward  from  Virginia.  Its  nest 
is  built  in  bushes  and  reeds  in  swampy  ground. 


COWBIRD— MEADOWLARK          193 

The  Cowbird  has  fittingly  been  called  an  outcast 
among  the  feathered  tribe,  on  account  of  its  despicable 
habit  of  shirking  the  duties  of  parenthood  and  foisting 
the  care  of  its  offspring  upon  other  birds.  Like  the 
Old  World  Cuckoo,  the  Cowbird  watches  its  oppor- 
tunity to  deposit  its  egg  in  the  nest  of  some  smaller 
bird,  who  usually  cares  for  it  in  preference  to  her  own 
eggs  and  young,  though  the  imposition  is  sometimes 
detected  and  the  Cowbird's  egg  thrown  from  the  nest. 

The  plumage  of  this  bird  is  shining  black,  with  a 
metallic  lustre  over  the  greater  part  of  the  body.  The 
head  and  neck  are  dark  brown. 

The  Purple  Crackle,  or  Crow  Blackbird,  has  beau- 
tifully iridescent  plumage  of  green,  blue  and  black, 
over  the  entire  body,  somewhat  duller  below  than 
above.  This  bird  breeds  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States,  wintering  in  the  southern  part.  A 
noticeable  feature  in  all  the  Crackles  is  their  bright 
yellow  eyes,  which  contrast  strikingly  with  their 
sombre  plumage.  These  birds  are  said  to  prey  upon 
the  eggs  and  young  of  other  species.  Their  notes  are 
harsh  and  disagreeable. 

A  much  larger  form  than  the  preceding,  found 
principally  in  the  marshes  of  Florida,  is  the  Boat- 
tailed  Crackle,  the  general  colour  of  which  is  bluish  or 
purplish-black,  darker  on  wings  and  tail. 

The  Meadowlark  is  the  most  soberly  coloured  mem- 
ber of  this  family,  the  plumage  being  a  mixture  of 
black,  buff  and  white.  The  outer  tail-feathers  are 
white,  forming  a  conspicuous  mark  when  the  bird  is 
on  the  wing.  These  birds  frequent  marshes  and 
meadow-lands,  where  they  blend  so  well  with  their 


194  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

surroundings  that  they  are  able  to  keep  themselves 
well  out  of  sight. 

STARLINGS 

The  Common  Starling  belongs  to  a  family  that  is 
peculiar  to  the  Old  World.  These  birds  seem  to  be 
most  nearly  related  to  the  Golden  Oriole,  as  already 
mentioned.  The  Starling  is  an  extremely  beautiful 
bird,  its  plumage,  purplish  and  greenish  in  general 
tone,  having  a  wonderful  metallic  lustre.  The  new 
feathers,  assumed  after  the  autumn  moult,  have  light 
buff  tips,  which  gradually  wear  off  as  the  summer 
livery  is  gained.  See  Plate  20,  Fig.  120. 

These  birds  lay  their  eggs  in  holes  or  the  hollow 
trunks  of  trees,  making  but  little  pretence  at  nest- 
building.  Young  Starlings  are  of  an  ash-brown 
colour,  totally  unlike  that  of  the  adult  birds. 

The  Starling  has  been  introduced  into  this  country 
in  recent  years,  where  it  breeds  well  and  seems  to  have 
become  completely  naturalised.  Like  the  English 
Sparrow,  it  is  combative  in  disposition,  and  is  said  to 
be  driving  away  some  of  our  native  birds. 

DIPPERS 

The  birds  of  this  family  enjoy  the  unique  distinction 
among  perching  birds  of  being  not  only  able  to  swim, 
but  also  to  run  or  fly  along  the  beds  of  swift  streams. 
The  Dipper,  or  Ouzel,  is  like  a  large  Wren  in  appear- 
ance, having  a  stout  body  and  a  very  short  tail.  The 
upper  parts  are  dark  brown,  and  the  breast  white.  It 
receives  its  name  from  the  habit  of  dipping  or  ducking 
in  the  water.  The  Dipper  is  an  insect- feeder,  though 


DIPPER— MISSEL-THRUSH         195 

it  has  been  accused  of  devouring  the  eggs  of  trout  in 
mountain  streams.  The  case,  however,  has  never  been 
proved  against  them.  See  Plate  10,  Fig.  50. 

The  American  Dipper,  or  Water-ouzel,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,  resembles  the  European,  but  the  breast 
is  dark-coloured  instead  of  white.  About  twelve  spe- 
cies are  known,  all  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
mountain  streams.  They  build  round  nests  of  moss, 
on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  white. 

Of  this  bird  Elliott  Coues  writes:  "Although  not 
web-footed,  nor  able  to  swim  with  its  feet,  nor  having 
the  slightest  affinity  with  water  birds,  nevertheless 
there  is  no  duck  nor  diver  more  truly  aquatic  than  the 
Dipper;  a  great  part  of  its  time,  in  fact,  being  spent 
under  water,  where  it  repairs  in  search  of  food." 

THRUSHES 

We  pass  now  to  the  large  family  of  Thrushes  and 
their  near  relations,  many  of  whom  are  superb  song- 
sters. These  birds  are  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the 
globe,  about  twelve,  out  of  the  three  hundred  or  more 
species,  being  found  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
rather  stoutly  built,  live  in  wooded  districts,  and  feed 
largely  upon  insects  and  fruit.  The  sexes  are  much 
alike  in  colouring,  and  the  species  are  migratory  and 
somewhat  gregarious  in  habit.  The  true  Thrushes  are 
generally  brownish  or  olive  above,  with  light  breasts 
spotted  with  darker  colour. 

The  Missel-thrush  is  the  largest  song-bird  found  in 
the  British  Islands,  where  it  is  seen  all  the  year  round. 
It  measures  about  ten  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and 
is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  spots  on  the  breast 


196  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

are  kidney-shaped,  while  in  the  Common  European 
Thrush  they  have  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  peg-top. 
The  outer  tail-feathers  are  tipped  with  white.  See 
Plate  11,  Fig.  55. 

The  European  Blackbird  is  probably  a  better 
known  bird  than  the  preceding,  for  he  is  more  in  evi- 
dence, living  in  and  near  large  towns.  In  the  London 
parks  Blackbirds  are  seen  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Though  the  sable  livery  and  golden  bill  give  this  bird 
some  claim  to  beauty,  it  is  more  as  a  songster  that  it 
is  esteemed,  its  notes  being  peculiarly  flute-like  and 
beautiful.  The  plumage  of  the  female  is  dull  brown. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  nest  of  this  Black- 
bird, like  that  of  the  Missel-thrush,  is  lined  with  dry 
grasses,  while  that  of  the  Common  Thrush  has  a 
water-tight  lining  of  rotten  wood.  See  Plate  11,  Fig. 
54. 

Nearly  related  to,  and  more  striking  in  appearance 
than  the  Blackbird,  is  the  Ring-ouzel,  which  has  a 
pure  white  crescent  on  the  breast.  As  a  songster,  how- 
ever, it  is  far  inferior  to  the  other  species.  See  Plate 
11,  Fig.  56. 

A  very  beautiful  European  Thrush  is  the  Rock- 
thrush,  which  most  nearly  represents  the  American 
Bluebird.  The  plumage  of  the  male  is  a  mixture  of 
blue,  black,  white  and  reddish  colours.  This  bird  is 
common  in  Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  but  is  seldom  seen  in  Great  Britain.  See 
Plate  12,  Fig.  57. 

The  delicately  coloured  little  bird  called  the  Wheat- 
ear  is  found  widely  distributed  throughout  the  Old 
World,  and  occasionally  visits  America.  The  plumage 


11, 


^  «^ 


51.  European  Oriole 

(Oriolw  aalbula). 


52.  Gray  Wagtail 
(Motacilla  melamrpe}. 


53. 

Pied  Wagtail 
(Motacilla  alba)/** 


54.  Blackbird 

(Merula  merula). 


55.  Missel  Thrush 
(Turdw  viscivorus). 


56.  Rilig  Ouzel  (Merula  torquatm}. 


WHEATEAR— BLUE-THROAT       197 

of  the  male  varies  with  the  season.  In  summer 
it  is  a  pale  grey  above,  with  wings  and  tail  black, 
the  rump  and  base  of  the  tail  white,  and  the  under 
parts  whitish.  After  the  autumn  moult  he  assumes  a 
plumage  that  closely  resembles  that  of  the  female,  the 
feathers  having  long  brown  fringes,  which  wear  off 
as  spring  approaches.  The  female  is  dull  brown 
above,  and  the  young  are  similar  in  colouring,  but  are 
slightly  spotted.  The  name  "Wheatear"  comes  from 
an  old  Saxon  word.  "Wheat"  is  a  corruption  of 
white,  and  "ear"  is  from  the  old  word  "aers,"  mean- 
ing rump,  in  allusion  to  the  white  patch  above  the 
tail.  See  Plate  12,  Fig.  60. 

An  extremely  lively  and  very  pretty  member  of  the 
Thrush  tribe  is  the  Stonechat,  common  throughout  the 
whole  of  Europe,  and  especially  abundant  in  the  pas- 
ture-lands of  Eugland.  It  is  an  insect-eater,  and  feeds 
largely  upon  the  destructive  wire-worm.  The  Stone- 
chat  builds  a  nest  of  grass  and  moss  on  the  ground, 
or  in  the  stems  of  bushes  but  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground.  See  Plate  12,  Fig.  62. 

A  near  relative  of  the  preceding  form  is  the 
European  Redstart,  of  which  two  species  are  figured, 
the  Common  Redstart  and  the  Black  Redstart.  Both 
are  extremely  handsome  little  birds,  and  fairly  com- 
mon in  the  Old  World.  They  are  said  to  be  increasing 
in  Great  Britain  and  extending  their  range.  Curi- 
ously enough,  the  eggs  of  the  two  species  differ  con- 
spicuously, those  of  the  Black  Redstart  being  a  pure, 
shining  white,  while  those  of  its  relative  are  a  beautiful 
pale  blue.  The  Redstarts  build  nests  of  fine  grass  and 


198  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

moss,  hidden  away  in  holes  of  trees  and  buildings,  or 
in  clefts  of  rock.  See  Plate  13,  Figs.  65,  66. 

A  no  less  beautiful  bird  is  the  Blue-throat,  of  which 
there  are  two — perhaps  three — forms  found  in  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  first  has  a  red  spot  in  the  middle 
of  the  blue  throat ;  the  second  a  white  spot.  A  third, 
unspotted  form  may  be  but  a  variety  of  the  white- 
spotted  species.  The  red-spotted  Bluethroat  is  a  bird 
of  high  northern  latitudes,  where  its  song  enlivens  the 
nightless  Arctic  summer  and  rivals  that  of  the  Night- 
ingale in  richness.  The  white-spotted  bird  breeds 
south  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  See  Plate  12,  Fig.  63. 

Probably  the  English  Redbreast,  or  Robin,  holds 
chief  place  in  the  long  roll  of  British  birds,  on  account 
of  its  friendly  ways  and  sweet  notes.  It  is  a  small  bird, 
about  five  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  olive-green 
above,  throat  and  fore  part  of  the  breast  orange-red. 
This  bird  is  found  even  in  large  cities,  in  the  parks  and 
gardens.  The  males  and  females  are  alike  in  colour- 
ing, but  the  first  plumage  of  the  young  birds  is  a  dull 
brown,  showing  no  trace  of  the  orange-red  throat  so 
conspicuous  in  the  parents.  They  are  often  mistaken 
for  the  females  of  the  species.  See  Plate  12,  Fig.  61. 

While  it  is  not  true  to  say  that  no  brightly  coloured 
birds  sing  well,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  some  of  the 
most  soberly  clad  are  the  sweetest  of  all  the  songsters. 
This  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  Nightingale,  whose  won- 
derful melody  is  celebrated  throughout  the  world. 
This  bird  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Old  World, 
and  is  very  common  in  Great  Britain.  The  sexes  are 
coloured  alike,  reddish-brown  above  and  whitish  below. 
See  Plate  12,  Fig.  59. 


AMERICAN  ROBIN  199 

The  American  Robin,  or  Migratory  Thrush,  is  one 
of  the  most  familiar  of  our  birds,  being  found  through- 
out the  whole  of  North  America.  The  name  "Robin," 
or  "Redbreast,"  was  given  it  by  the  early  English  set- 
tlers in  this  country,  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to 
the  Old  World  bird  called  by  that  name.  The  Robin 
of  the  New  World,  however,  is  a  much  larger  form, 
being  nearly  twice  the  size  of  its  European  cousin,  and 
the  red  breast  is  different  in  hue.  It  is  slate-colour 
above,  the  head  is  black,  and  the  throat  is  streaked  with 
white.  The  food  of  the  Robin  consists  of  worms,  in- 
sects, and  fruit.  The  foundation  of  the  nest  is  made  of 
mud,  lined  with  grasses  and  other  soft  materials.  The 
song  and  call-notes  of  this  bird  are  very  varied, 
expressing  suspicion,  alarm,  caution,  and  so  on,  and 
many  of  them  have  never  been  satisfactorily  inter- 
preted. 

The  Bluebird  is  another  well-known  American 
member  of  the  Thrush  family,  whose  arrival  in  the 
spring  is  eagerly  looked  forward  to.  It  is  a  resident 
species  throughout  eastern  North  America,  though  the 
majority  of  Bluebirds  go  South  for  the  winter.  The 
general  colouring  of  the  upper  parts  is  brilliant  blue, 
darkening  on  the  wings ;  dull  reddish  on  the  breast,  the 
rest  of  the  under  parts  whitish.  The  young  are 
spotted  on  breast  and  back. 

The  largest  member  of  the  Thrush  family  in  Amer- 
ica is  the  Wood  Thrush,  reddish-brown  above,  chang- 
ing to  olive-brown  on  the  tail.  Except  on  the  throat 
and  down  the  middle,  the  under  parts  are  thickly 
spotted  with  black,  the  spots  reaching  well  up  under 
the  wings.  This  bird  is  common  in  the  Eastern  States. 


200  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Its  notes  are  very  sweet  and  flute-like  in  quality.  The 
nest  and  the  eggs  are  much  like  those  of  the  Robin. 

Wilson's  Thrush,  or  Veery,  is  a  duller  brown  than 
the  Wood  Thrush,  and  has  the  under  parts  white, 
flecked  with  small  wedge-shaped  spots,  much  the  same 
colour  as  the  brown  of  the  back.  The  song  of  this  bird 
is  peculiar,  and  unlike  that  of  any  of  the  other 
Thrushes. 

The  Hermit  Thrush  is  spread  over  nearly  the  whole 
of  North  America.  It  is  olive-brown,  shading  to  red- 
dish on  the  tail;  throat  and  breast  buffy,  profusely 
spotted  with  dark  brown.  This  bird,  like  the  other 
members  of  the  group,  is  a  fine  singer.  While  not 
especially  shy,  the  Hermit  Thrush  is  not  very  often 
seen,  from  the  fact  that  it  inhabits  woodlands  and 
thickets,  rather  than  open  country.  It  builds  a  nest 
of  sticks  and  twigs,  on  or  near  the  ground,  and  the 
eggs  are  greenish-blue,  like  those  of  the  Robin  and 
Wood  Thrush.  See  Plate  42,  Fig.  248. 

WARBLERS 

This  is  a  very  large  group  of  birds,  inhabiting  both 
the  Old  and  the  New  World,  embracing  several  fam- 
ilies and  many  different  species.  Only  a  few  birds  in 
America  correspond  to  the  Warblers  of  the  Old 
World,  all  of  which,  unlike  the  typical  American  fam- 
ily, have  clear,  sweet  voices.  A  few  species  representa- 
tive of  the  Warblers  of  both  countries  will  be  briefly 
mentioned.  They  are  active,  sprightly  little  birds, 
more  or  less  green  or  brown  above,  and  yellow  or  buff 
below.  Formerly  they  were  included  in  the  Thrush 


12. 


57. 

Rock  Thrush 
(Monticola 
saxatdtisj. 


PIP* 
58. 

^  Sparrow 
(Accentor  modularis). 


59.  Nightingale 
(Daulias  luscinm) 


60. 

heatear 
(Saxicokt 
cenanthe). 


61.  European  Robin  Redbreast 
(JErythacus  rubecula). 


63. 

White- 
spotted 
Blue- 
throat 

(Cyanecula     jjP 
cyaneculft). 


62. 

Stonechat 
(Pratincola  rubicolaj 


BLACKCAP  201 


family,  from  which  they  have  now  been  separated  on 
account  of  certain  important  differences.  The  War- 
blers have  two  moults  during  the  year,  and  the  young 
are  like  the  parents  in  colour. 

The  Blackcap  is  in  some  respects  almost  as  skilled 
a  performer  as  the  Nightingale,  and  it  is  much  more 
widely  distributed  than  that  famous  songster.  The 
female  Blackcap  has  the  crown  of  the  head  a  dull 
chestnut,  and  so  also  have  the  young  in  their  first 
plumage.  See  Plate  13,  Fig.  72. 

Another  sweet  singer,  but  far  inferior  to  the  Night- 
ingale and  Blackcap,  is  the  Whitethroat,  a  common 
bird  in  the  British  Islands.  The  male  White-throat 
displays  great  courage  in  defense  of  his  nest  and 
young.  When  an  intruder  draws  near,  he  flits  from 
branch  to  branch,  with  every  feather  of  his  crest  and 
throat  erect,  and  tail  widely  spread,  while  every  now 
and  then  he  shoots  up  into  the  air  and  descends  again, 
almost  vertically,  keeping^  up  this  scolding  remon- 
strance until  the  danger  is  past.  See  Plate  13,  Fig. 
71. 

The  Golden-crested  Wren  has  the  distinction  of 
being  the  smallest  of  European  birds,  measuring  not 
more  than  three  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  Its  nest 
is  a  wonderful  structure  of  moss,  felted  together  by 
spider-webs  and  sheep's  wool.  Outside,  bits  of  lichen 
are  fastened  to  render  it  inconspicuous,  and  the  inside 
is  lined  with  feathers.  This  exquisite  little  nursery  is 
swung  at  the.  end  of  a  long  bough,  instead  of  being 
placed  on  it.  From  five  to  eight,  or  even  ten,  tiny, 
buff- white  eggs,  faintly  freckled  with  red,  are  laid,  and 
most  jealously  brooded  by  the  female.  The  young 


202  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

birds  lack  the  beautiful  golden  crest  of  their  parents. 
See  Plate  13,  Fig.  69. 

The  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  takes  the  place  of  the 
preceding  species  in  America.  This  pretty  little  bird 
has  a  crown  of  bright  orange  colour,  bordered  by  black 
and  yellow.  The  general  tint  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  greyish-green,  the  lower  part  whitish.  This 
bird  is  often  associated  in  migration  with  another 
species,  the  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet,  which  has  a 
bright  red  crown,  more  or  less  concealed,  but  otherwise 
closely  resembles  it.  Like  the  European  species,  these 
birds  build  elaborate  nests,  which  they  suspend  from 
the  end  of  branches — usually  from  evergreen  trees. 
The  song  of  the  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet  is  mellow  and 
flute-like,  that  of  its  Golden-crov/ned  cousin  shriller 
and  not  so  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Among  the  common  Old  World  species  figured  are 
the  Wood-wren,  the  Marsh-warbler,  and  the  Icter- 
ine  Warbler,  whose  relatives  are  the  Sedge-  and  Reed- 
warblers,  and  the  Chiff-chaff.  The  Reed-warbler 
builds  a  most  interesting  nest.  It  is  shaped  like  a  deep 
cup,  and  is  fixed  at  the  sides  to  the  tall  stems  of  reeds, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  growing  up  through 
the  nest.  So  skilfully  is  this  nursery  built,  that  when 
the  reeds  bend  low  over  the  water,  the  eggs  or  young 
rest  securely  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest.  See  Plate  13, 
Figs.  64,  67,  70. 

Though  many  of  the  Warblers,  such  as  the  Sedge-, 
Reed-  and  Marsh-warblers,  show  a  preference  for 
swamps  and  inland  water,  a  great  number  of  species, 
on  the  other  hand,  inhabit  dry  localities.  Between 


HEDGE-SPARROW  203 

some  of  these  species  there  is  so  great  a  resemblance 
that  only  an  expert  can  distinguish  them. 

The*  Hedge-sparrow  is  a  true  Warbler,  and  is  in  no 
way  related  to  the  House-sparrow,  as  the  name  seems 
to  imply.  In  their  habits,  even  more  than  in  their 
appearance,  the  birds  are  unlike,  for  the  House-spar- 
row is  mischievous  and  insolent  in  demeanour,  while 
the  Hedge-sparrow  is  among  the  most  retiring  of 
birds.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  where  it  is  a  resident  species.  This  bird 
is  frequently  made  the  dupe  of  the  Cuckoo,  perform- 
ing the  work  of  foster-parent  with  great  zeal.  The 
nest  of  the  Hedge-sparrow,  seldom  placed  far  from 
the  ground,  is  made  of  roots  and  mosses,  and  lined 
with  hair  and  wool.  From  four  to  six  beautiful  tur- 
quoise-blue eggs  are  laid.  See  Plate  12,  Fig.  58. 

As  has  been  said,  the  Wood  Warblers  are  a  pecu- 
liarly American  family,  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country.  The  greater  part  of  the  one 
hundred  known  species  inhabit  the  United  States, 
although  some  are  confined  to  the  tropics.  They  are 
generally  tree-living  birds,  but  a  few  species  are  to  be 
found  in  undergrowth  and  open  country.  All  are 
insect-feeders,  but  vary  in  their  methods  of  obtaining 
their  prey,  some  capturing  it  on  the  wing,  while  others 
find  it  by  creeping  about  the  trunks  and  limbs  of 
trees. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  members  of  this  family 
is  the  little  American  Redstart,  whose  plumage  is  a 
charming  mixture  of  shining  black  and  rich  salmon 
colour.  It  breeds  in  North  America,  but  winters  in 
the  tropics. 


204  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

In  the  Hooded  Warbler  the  hind  head,  neck  and 
throat  are  black,  the  face  and  under  parts  bright  yel- 
low ;  back,  tail  and  wings,  olive-green.  The  outer  tail- 
feathers  are  mostly  white,  showing  conspicuously 
when  the  bird  is  on  the  wing.  Both  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding species  have  sweet  singing  notes,  and  a  sharp 
call  when  alarmed. 

The  Myrtle  Warbler  has  the  top  of  head,  each  side 
of  the  breast  and  the  rump,  yellow,  forming  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  black-streaked  bluish-grey  of  the 
upper  parts.  The  throat  is  white,  and  there  is  much 
black  on  the  breast.  Like  the  other  species  mentioned, 
this  bird  is  common  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  yellow  patches  of  colour  make  it  easy 
to  identify. 

The  name  of  the  Blue-winged  Warbler  is  apt  to  be 
misleading,  since  the  wings  are  rather  slate-coloured 
than  blue.  The  tail  is  the  same  shade  as  the  wings; 
the  upper  parts  are  olive-green,  faintly  washed  with 
yellow,  and  the  entire  under  parts  are  brilliant  yellow. 
As  in  many  of  the  Warblers,  the  wing-coverts  are 
tipped  with  white,  and  there  are  patches  of  white  on 
the  outer  tail-feathers.  The  black  line  through  the 
eye  helps  to  identify  the  species. 

The  black  forehead  and  cheeks,  olive-green  back, 
bright  yellow  throat  and  breast  of  the  Maryland 
Yellow-throat,  are  found  in  so  many  other  species  of 
the  "Yellow- throats"  that  only  an  expert  ornithologist 
can  distinguish  them  one  from  another.  The  North- 
ern Yellow-throat  is  a  somewhat  larger  form,  found 
quite  widely  distributed  throughout  the  northern  and 
eastern  parts  of  North  America. 


YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT— VIREOS  205 

A  distinguishing  field-mark  of  the  Parula  Warbler 
is  the  triangular  patch  of  greenish-yellow  on  the  fore 
part  of  the  back.  The  throat  and  breast  are  yellow, 
and  there  is  a  dark  band  across  the  breast,  usually 
blackish  or  reddish.  The  Northern  Parula  has  a 
wider  breast-band,  and  there  is  more  reddish  in  the 
plumage. 

The  Chestnut-sided  Warbler  has  reddish-brown 
sides,  greenish-yellow  back  streaked  with  black,  black 
on  cheeks  and  sides  of  throat.  This  bird  is  found 
along  the  borders  of  woodlands  and  in  scrubby  under- 
growth, and  its  markings  differ  considerably  from 
those  of  other  species,  so  that  it  is  comparatively  easy 
to  recognise. 

The  Yellow-breasted  Chat  has  the  distinction  of 
being  the  largest  of  all  our  Warblers,  as  well  as  the 
most  eccentric  in  behaviour.  The  back  of  this  bird  is 
olive-green,  like  that  of  so  many  of  the  family;  the 
throat  and  breast  are  brilliant  yellow,  and  over  the 
eye  and  at  the  edge  of  the  throat  is  a  conspicuous 
white  line.  It  is  a  common  summer  resident  in  many 
of  our  Eastern  States.  It  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  when 
approached,  especially  during*  the  nesting-time,  goes 
through  with  many  strange  performances  in  the  air. 
Mr.  Chapman  says,  "After  an  acquaintance  of  many 
years,  I  frankly  confess  that  his  true  character  is  a 
mystery  to  me.  .  .  .  But  that  there  is  method  in  his 
madness  no  one  who  studies  him  closely  can  doubt." 

The  Oven-bird,  or  Golden-crowned  Thrush,  is  one 
of  the  Ground  Warblers,  that  in  appearance  resembles 
a  small  Thrush,  having  a  white  breast  marked  with 
brownish  spots.  It  is  olive-green  above,  without  white 


206  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

markings  on  wings  or  tail,  and  has  an  orange-coloured 
crown  bordered  by  black  lines  at  the  sides.  This  bird 
is  common  in  our  Eastern  States,  but  is  seldom  seen 
on  account  of  its  retiring  disposition.  He  has  a  liquid, 
melodious  song,  "the  very  force  of  which  carries  him 
up  into  the  air  among  the  tree-tops." 

VIREOS 

The  Vireos  constitute  a  family,  embracing  many 
species,  of  small,  insectivorous  birds  that  are  peculiar 
to  America.  Their  characteristic  colour  is  olive-green, 
and  on  this  account  they  are  also  called  Greenlets. 
The  Vireos  inhabit  both  trees  and  undergrowth,  and 
most  of  them  have  very  melodious  songs.  Unlike 
many  of  the  other  insect-eating  birds,  they  are  rather 
slow  in  their  motions,  and  obtain  their  food  by  glean- 
ing the  under  surface  of  leaves  and  prying  larva?  from 
crevices  in  the  bark,  rather  than  by  darting  after  it 
in  the  manner  of  the  Flycatchers.  The  Vireos  are 
migratory,  many  species  spending  the  summer  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  autumn  returning  to  their 
home  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 

A  common  species  in  eastern  North  America  is  the 
Red-eyed  Vireo,  or  Greenlet,  whose  plumage  is  olive- 
green  above,  with  a  slaty-grey  crown,  and  a  conspicu- 
ous white  line  over  the  eye.  The  under  parts  are  pure 
white.  A  distinguishing  character  of  this  bird  is  its 
red  iris.  Like  most  of  its  relatives,  the  Red-eyed 
Vireo  is  a  fine  singer,  and  like  them  also,  but  in  this 
character  differing  from  most  other  birds,  it  sings 
while  weaving  its  pensile  nest  of  grasses,  lichens,  and 
so  on.  i 


13. 


65.  Redstart 
(Buticilla  phcenicurus). 


frl  Marsh  Warbler. 
(Acrocephalus  palustris). 


61. 

Wood  Wren 

(PhylloBCopus 

sibilatrix). 


66.  Black 

Redstart 

(Ruticilla 

toys). 


cre^t 

(Regulus  re- 
gulusj. 


10. 

cterine  Warbler 
(Hypolais  hypolais). 


(Trogl 


71.  Garden- 
Warbler 

(Sylvia  simplex) 


*^ 

if        \  Y*        12-  Blackcap 

(Sylvia  atricapillaj. 


WHITE-EYED  VIREO 207 

A  very  handsome,  but  somewhat  rarer  form  than 
the  preceding  in  the  United  States,  is  the  Blue- 
headed,  or  Solitary,  Vireo,  whose  back  is  bright  olive- 
green,  top  and  sides  of  head  bluish-ash  colour,  wings 
marked  with  two  white  bars,  and  under  parts  pure 
white.  This  bird  is  the  first  of  its  family  to  reach  the 
Northern  States  in  the  spring,  and  the  last  to  leave 
for  its  southern  home. 

The  White-eyed  Vireo  is  abundant  in  summer  in 
the  undergrowth  of  our  Eastern  States.  The  bright 
olive-green  of  its  upper  parts  are  washed  with  greyish, 
and  the  wings  have  two  distinct  yellowish-white  bars. 
A  marked  character  is  the  white  iris,  which,  however, 
is  brown  in  the  young  bird.  The  White-eyed  Vireo 
has  considerable  ability  as  a  singer,  and  varies  his  own 
sweet  song  with  the  notes  of  other  birds. 

WAGTAILS  AND  PIPITS 

These  birds  are  found  principally  in  the  Old  World, 
only  three  out  of  the  sixty  or  more  known  species 
inhabiting  America.  Though  the  Wagtails  and  Pipits 
are  closely  related,  so  far  as  colouration  is  concerned 
the  two  groups  differ  conspicuously:  the  Wagtails 
have  a  beautifully  harmonious,  but  rather  brightly 
coloured  plumage,  while  the  Pipits  as  a  rule  are 
clothed  in  sober  brown,  relieved  by  streaks  and  spots 
of  darker  brown.  In  both  groups  the  legs  are  rela- 
tively long,  and  the  inner  quill-feathers  of  the  wing, 
or  inner  secondaries,  are  so  long  that  they  reach  the 
end  of  the  primaries  when  the  wing  is  closed — a  char- 
acter shared  by  the  Larks.  These  birds  do  not  hop, 


208  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

but  walk  or  run  along  the  ground,  and  have  the  habit 
of  constantly  wagging  the  tail.  They  feed  upon  in- 
sects, which  they  catch  both  on  the  wing  and  from  the 
ground.  The  hind  toe-nail  in  both  Wagtails  and 
Pipits  is  greatly  lengthened. 

Two  of  the  commonest  European  species  are  the 
Grey  Wagtail  and  the  White  Wagtail,  the  former 
being  remarkable  for  its  long  tail.  Both  are  beautiful 
and  delicately  coloured  little  birds.  The  black  throat 
of  the  male  Grey  Wagtail  is  worn  only  during  the 
breeding  season,  being  replaced  by  white  in  winter. 
This  bird  is  a  lover  of  mountain  streams,  preferring 
them  to  those  that  run  through  flat  country.  See  Plate 
11,  Fig.  52. 

The  White  Wagtail  in  its  summer  dress  may  readily 
be  distinguished  from  its  other  common  relative,  the 
Pied  Wagtail,  by  the  greater  amount  of  white  on  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  by  the  beautiful  pearl-grey  of 
the  upper  parts,  that  of  the  Pied  species  being  black. 
In  winter  they  resemble  each  other  rather  closely ;  the 
black  back  being  grey  at  this  time,  although  darker 
than  in  the  other  species.  See  Plate  11,  Fig.  53. 

The  Yellow  Wagtail  is  an  extremely  common  bird 
in  many  parts  of  the  British  Islands.  It  is  a  species 
which  revels  in  wet  meadows,  and  finds  the  company 
of  cattle  attractive  for  the  sake  of  the  flies  which  they 
stir  up  in  the  grass.  The  chin,  throat,  and  under  parts 
of  this  bird  are  bright  yellow,  and  a  yellow  stripe  runs 
over  the  eye. 

In  some  respects  the  Pipits  are  like  the  Larks,  but 
they  are  nevertheless  probably  not  very  closely  related 
to  the  Lark  family.  In  colouration  they  are  very 


TREE-PIPIT—LARKS 209 

similar,  and  another  external  character  which  they 
have  in  common  is  the  greatly  lengthened  hind  toe- 
nail.  The  Pipits  build  their  nests  on  the  ground, 
usually  in  sheltered  places,  and  the  eggs  of  some  spe- 
cies are  much  more  brilliantly  coloured  than  are  those 
of  the  Wagtails. 

The  Tree-pipit  is  fairly  well  distributed  throughout 
Europe,  though  on  account  of  its  sober  colouring  it 
seldom  attracts  attention.  It  has  a  pleasing  and  rather 
powerful,  though  limited,  little  song.  While  able  to 
perch  upon  trees,  the  Tree-pipit,  like  the  other  species 
of  this  group,  seems  more  at  home  on  the  ground, 
where  it  runs  actively  about,  with  much  jerking  of  the 
tail.  Resembling  the  Meadow-pipit,  it  is  larger,  and 
has  a  shorter  hind-claw.  See  Plate  10,  Fig.  49. 

The  smallest  of  the  European  Pipits,  or  Titlarks, 
is  the  Meadow-pipit.  This  dainty  little  bird  may  be 
seen  in  suitable  localities  throughout  the  year  in  the 
British  Islands. 

The  American  Pipit,  or  Titlark,  is  the  most  widely 
distributed  species  in  this  country.  In  colouring  it  is 
greyish-brown  above,  faintly  streaked  with  darker 
brown;  the  under  parts  are  buff,  streaked  on  breast 
and  sides  with  blackish.  The  end  half  of  the  outer 
tail-feather  is  white,  the  one  next  to  it  has  white  on  the 
end,  and  the  wing-coverts  are  tipped  with  white. 

These  little  birds  breed  in  the  far  North,  migrating 
southward  in  winter  to  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
When  a  flock  is  startled,  it  is  said  to  rise  high  in  the 
air,  as  if  for  a  long  flight,  but  after  hovering  for  a  few 
moments,  to  return  to,  or  near,  the  place  from  which 
it  rose. 


210  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

LARKS 

There  is  a  general  notion  among  those  who  are  not 
experts  in  the  matter  of  the  classification  of  birds,  that 
the  Larks  are  related  to  the  Pipits  and  Wagtails,  but 
whether  this  belief  is  well  founded  or  not  remains  to 
be  proved.  As  has  been  said,  in  certain  characters 
they  bear  a  superficial  resemblance.  The  relationship 
between  the  Larks  and  the  Finches,  to  be  considered 
later,  seems  to  be  evident. 

The  Larks  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  Old  World, 
though  North  America  has  representatives  of  the 
group  in  the  Horned  Larks.  The  family  is  distin- 
guished from  all  the  other  Perching  birds  by  the  fact 
that  the  back  of  the  leg  is  covered  by  small  scutes,  or 
scales.  The  long  hind  claw  and  the  length  of  the  inner 
quill- feathers  of  the  wing  in  Larks  has  already  been 
mentioned.  Their  bills  are  short  and  conical. 

The  best  known  of  this  family  is  the  Skylark,  so 
famous  for  its  song,  which  is  heard  during  nearly  eight 
months  of  the  year,  and  ranks  next  to  that  of  the 
Nightingale  in  popular  favour.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
birds  that  sing  while  on  the  wing,  and  the  strong 
natural  impulse  to  rise  in  the  air  when  singing  makes 
the  efforts  of  a  caged  Skylark  a  most  pitiful  sight. 
Sometimes  it  will  sing  from  the  ground,  but  usually 
the  Skylark  ascends  in  a  spiral  course  to  a  consider- 
able height.  The  general  colour  of  this  bird  is  brown 
of  varying  shades,  with  slight  touches  of  white  or 
yellow.  The  breast  is  greyish-brown.  See  Plate  14, 
Fig.  74. 

During  migration  these  birds  suffer  appalling  losses 


WOOD  LARK  211 


in  their  ranks,  immense  numbers  being  killed  by  dash- 
ing against  lighthouses.  As  many  as  fifteen  thousand 
are  known  to  have  been  killed  in  this  way  in  a  single 
night. 

Resembling  the  Skylark  in  general  appearance,  the 
Wood  Lark  may  be  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size, 
shorter  tail,  more  pronounced  crest,  and  the  broad, 
pale  stripe  over  the  eye.  The  song  of  this  bird  is 
sweet  and  flute-like,  and  is  uttered  on  the  wing,  the 
bird  hovering  in  the  air  and  descending  spirally  with 
half-closed  wings.  It  does  not  mount  like  the  Sky- 
lark, however,  nor  is  its  song  so  powerful  and  spark- 
ling. The  Woodlark  receives  its  name  from  its  ability 
to  perch  on  trees,  which  the  Skylark  does  not  seem  to 
have.  See  Plate  14,  Fig.  75. 

The  Crested  Lark  is  a  fairly  common  species  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  but  is  rarely  found  in  England. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  Skylark  by  the  long 
drooping  crest  depending  from  the  back  of  the  neck, 
the  absence  of  white  in  the  tail,  and  by  its  somewhat 
larger  form.  See  Plate  14,  Fig.  76. 

The  Horned  Lark,  or  Shore  Lark,  breeds  in  the 
Arctic  regions  of  both  Old  and  New  Worlds.  In  win- 
ter it  is  found  as  far  south  in  this  country  as  North 
Carolina.  The  black  feathers  over  the  eye  in  this  bird 
are  lengthened  to  form  little  tufts,  or  "horns,"  from 
which  it  receives  its  name.  The  back  is  brown, 
streaked  with  darker  colour,  and  the  sides  are  pinkish 
brown,  as  well  as  the  back  of  the  neck  and  wing-  and 
tail-coverts,  while  the  throat  and  a  line  over  the  eye 
are  yellow.  This  species  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  seashore,  or  in  open  country  in  the  interior,  but  sel- 


212  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

dom  in  wooded  districts.    They  are  ground  birds,  and 
are  usually  seen  in  flocks. 

A  smaller  but  similar  form  to  the  preceding  is  the 
Prairie  Horned  Lark,  a  more  southern  species,  and 
one  that  is  extending  its  range  eastward  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  Formerly  confined  to  the  prairies 
of  the  West,  it  now  breeds  in  any  suitable  locality 
farther  East.  This  bird  has  a  white,  instead  of  yellow, 
line  over  the  eye.  In  singing,  it  is  said  to  hurl  itself 
aloft  like  the  Skylark,  and  also  to  sing  on  the  ground. 

FINCHES 

This  is  an  enormous  family  of  birds,  the  largest  in 
the  Order  to  which  it  belongs,  and  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  except  Australia  and  adjacent  islands. 
While  the  plumage  of  many  species  is  plain,  that  of 
many  others  is  brilliantly  coloured.  Nearly  all  the 
Finches  are  song-birds,  and  many  are  favourite  cage- 
birds.  All  are  seed-eaters,  although  during  the  breed- 
ing season  they  capture  great  quantities  of  insects  as 
food  for  their  young.  Most  of  the  species  are  resident 
throughout  their  range,  and  not  migratory  to  any 
extent,  as  are  all  the  exclusively  insect-eaters  among 
birds.  The  Finches  may  be  generally  described  as 
rather  small  birds  having  a  short,  pointed,  conical 
beak,  and  nine  primary  quill-feathers. 

One  of  the  commonest  of  European  Finches  is  the 
Greenfinch.  It  has  no  representative  in  America.  The 
male  is  a  beautiful  bird  whose  colouring  is  in  general 
green  and  gold,  and  the  female  resembles  him,  but  is 
not  so  brilliantly  coloured.  This  bird  does  well  in  con- 
finement, and  shows  some  capacity  for  learning  the 


14. 


75.  Wood  Lark 
(Alauda  arborea). 


76.  Crested  Lark 
(Galerita  cristata). 


77. 

Hawfinch 

(Coccotkruustes  cocco- 

tkraustes) 


74;.  European 

Skylark 
(Alauda  arvenais) 


73.  Lyre 
\Bird 
(Menura 
euperbaj. 


78.  Long- 
tailed  Titmouse 
(Acredula  can- 
data). 


GOLDFINCH— SISKIN 218 

songs  of  other  species,  though  it  is  by  no  means  a 
skilled  performer,  and  its  own  notes  are  rather  monot- 
onous. It  is  a  lover  of  gardens  and  orchards.  See 
Plate  16,  Fig.  90. 

The  Hawfinch  is  found  in  nearly  the  whole  of 
Europe  and  in  parts  of  Asia,  as  well  as  in  northern 
Africa.  It  is  especially  common  in  England,  although 
it  contrives  remarkably  well  to  escape  observation. 
The  plumage  of  the  Hawfinch  is  much  variegated  and 
by  no  means  conspicuous.  It  closely  resembles  that  of 
the  Chaffinch,  but  the  Hawfinch  is  a  larger  bird — one 
of  the  largest  of  its  family.  A  marked  character  is  the 
great  size  of  its  beak,  inside  of  which  are  curious  crush- 
ing-pads, used  in  opening  the  hard-shelled  stones  of 
the  hawthorn  and  other  fruits  of  which  it  is  very  fond. 
See  Plate  14,  Fig.  77. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Finches  is  the 
European  Goldfinch,  whose  name  is  derived  from  the 
golden-yellow  of  its  plumage.  The  sexes  are  coloured 
much  alike,  but  the  young  are  quite  different-looking, 
being  without  the  beautiful  markings  of  the  parents. 
The  Goldfinch  is  a  favourite  cage-bird,  and  as  it  is  not 
easy  to  keep  in  confinement,  is  constantly  in  demand 
by  fanciers.  In  England  thousands  are  caught  yearly 
in  nets,  and  so  great  have  been  the  raids  on  their  ranks 
that  in  many  parts  of  the  country  where  they  were 
formerly  abundant  they  have  been  practically  exter- 
minated. See  Plate  17,  Fig.  98. 

Introduced  into  this  country  in  1878,  the  European 
Goldfinch  is  occasionally  seen  about  New  York  City 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  Eastern  States. 

The  American  Goldfinch,  more  commonly  called 


214  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Yellow-bird,  is  a  distinct  species  from  the  European. 
It  is  also  a  very  beautiful  little  bird,  having  a  bright 
yellow  body,  a  black  cap,  and  black  wings  and  tail 
varied  with  white.  The  sexes  are  quite  unlike  in 
colour,  the  female  being  olive-brown  above  and  yellow- 
ish below.  In  the  fall  the  black  cap  of  the  male  dis- 
appears and  his  colours  in  general  fade  until  they 
approximate  those  of  his  mate.  The  sweet  song  and 
undulating  flight  of  this  little  bird  are  well  known. 
The  American  Goldfinch  is  quite  common  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Siskin,  or  Aberdevine,  is  a  near  relative  of  the 
Goldfinch,  which  it  resembles  both  in  song  and  in  man- 
ner of  flight.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  the 
Old  World,  and  winters  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 
The  Siskin  is  especially  abundant  in  the  British 
Islands,  where  it  is  frequently  kept  in  confinement  on 
account  of  its  melodious  song.  See  Plate  18,  Fig.  103. 

The  Pine  Siskin,  or  Pine  Finch,  of  this  country,  is 
also  a  native  of  the  far  North,  but  winters  south  to 
the  Gulf  States,  and  is  found  throughout  almost  the 
whole  of  North  America.  The  colouring,  in  general, 
is  olive-brown  above,  whitish,  streaked  with  black, 
below,  with  yellow  on  wings  and  at  base  of  tail.  The 
latter  is  slightly  forked.  Siskins  feed  chiefly  on  the 
seeds  of  pines  and  hemlocks  and  other  coniferous 
trees. 

The  home  of  the  little  bird  known  as  the  Serin 
is  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe  and  northern 
Africa,  although  it  is  an  occasional  visitor  to  Great 
Britain.  This  Finch  has  a  peculiar  interest,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  probably  the  ancestor  of  that  most  popular 


ENGLISH  SPARROW  215 

of  cage-birds,  the  Canary.  It  is  a  slightly  smaller 
bird,  with  shorter  wings  and  longer  tail,  and  its  song 
is  not  so  melodious  nor  so  varied  as  that  of  the 
Canary.  See  Plate  18,  Fig.  102. 

The  Canary  is  closely  allied  to,  if,  indeed,  it  is  not 
a  sub-species  of,  the  Serin.  The  wild  Canary  is  olive- 
green  above,  streaked  with  darker  colour,  and  green- 
ish-yellow below;  but  by  ages  of  careful  breeding, 
many  varieties  have  been  produced,  the  most  common 
being  pale  yellow  over  the  whole  body.  This  is  said 
to  be  deepened  to  a  brilliant  flame-colour  by  mixing 
cayenne  pepper  in  the  food.  The  name  of  the  bird 
is  derived  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a  native  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  where  it  is  very  abundant.  It  is  a 
popular  cage-bird  all  over  the  world.  The  song  of 
the  wild  Canary,  though  pleasing,  is  said  to  be  sur- 
passed by  that  of  the  domesticated  varieties.  See 
Plate  18,  Fig.  105. 

Of  the  House-sparrow,  or  English  Sparrow,  as  it 
is  usually  called  in  -this  country,  though  it  is  not 
known  to  be  a  native  of  England,  little  need  be  said, 
for  it  is,  unfortunately,  now  common  everywhere. 
Although,  like  the  rest  of  its  family,  chiefly  a  seed- 
and  grain-eater,  it  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  the  expectation  that  it  would  destroy  noxi- 
ous insects  that  were  injuring  trees  in  our  public 
parks.  It  has,  however,  done  far  more  harm  than 
good,  proving  a  great  pest  to  farmers,  and  driving 
away  many  of  our  native  birds  from  their  former 
haunts.  The  House-sparrow  is  extremely  hardy  and 
prolific,  and  adapts  itself  with  wonderful  facility  to 
new  environment.  It  has  no  song,  and  its  one  note  is 


216  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

by  no  means  pleasant  to  the  ear.    See  Plate  16,  Fig. 
93. 

The  European  Tree-sparrow,  which  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  preceding  species,  is  a  relatively  rare 
bird  in  comparison.  It  also  was  introduced  into  this 
country,  where  it  has  become  naturalised.  While 
much  like  the  House-sparrow,  it  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  chestnut,  instead  of  grey,  crown,  and  the  two 
white  bars  across  the  closed  wing.  Further,  while  in 
the  former  species  the  sexes  are  quite  dissimilar,  in 
the  Tree-sparrow  they  can  hardly  be  distinguished. 
See  Plate  16,  Fig.  94. 

The  American  Tree-sparrow  is  found  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country,  breeding  north  of  the  United 
States,  but  wintering  throughout  them,  as  far  west  as 
the  Great  Plains.  A  small  black  spot  in  the  centre 
of  the  greyish-white  breast  is  an  aid  in  identifying  it. 
It  has  a  sweet  liquid  warble,  somewhat  Canary-like 
in  character. 

The  Field-sparrow  of  this  country  gets  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  frequenting  fields  and  open  country, 
rather  than  more  wooded  sections.  It  closely  resem- 
bles the  Tree-sparrow  in  colouring,  but  is  somewhat 
duller.  This  bird  is  common  in  summer  throughout 
our  Eastern  States.  It  nests  on  or  near  the  ground. 

Two  other  very  well  known  species  in  eastern  North 
America  are  the  Song-sparrow  and  the  Chipping- 
sparrow.  Both  are  sociable  little  birds,  often  coming 
about  houses  in  search  of  food.  The  former  is  one  of 
our  sweetest  and  most  constant  songsters,  being  heard 
at  all  hours  during  the  day.  This  bird  is  reddish- 
brown  above,  streaked  with  black  and  ash,  and  white 


18. 


102.  Serin 
(Serlnus  hortulanua} 


104.  Brambiing  (Fringilla  ntontifrtngilla). 


105. 
Canary 

(Serinus 
(canarius). 


-M 


106. 

Bohemian  Waxwing 
(Ampelis  garrulus}. 


107. 

European 

Swift 

(Cypselus 


108.  European 
Barn  Swallow 


(Hirundo  ruslica). 


BRAMBLING—  BULLFINCH 


below,  the  breast  and  sides  having  streaks  of  dark  red- 
dish, and  the  crown  striped  with  black.  Both  species 
build  in  trees  or  low  bushes,  often  very  near  houses. 

The  Common  Chaffinch  is  even  more  abundant  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  than  the  House-sparrow,  and 
is  especially  plentiful  in  the  north  of  England.  The 
male  bird  has  a  tuneful  song,  and  is  much  esteemed 
as  a  cage-bird.  It  was  a  common  custom,  formerly, 
to  sear  the  eyes  of  these  birds  with  a  hot  iron  in  order 
to  make  them  sing  better,  and  even  now,  in  order  to 
perfect  their  song,  they  are  sometimes  made  to  pass 
much  of  their  time  in  the  dark.  See  Plate  17,  Fig.  97. 

The  Chaffinch  is  a  friendly  little  bird,  building  its 
nest  in  gardens  and  orchards  near  human  dwellings. 

The  B  rambling,  or  Mountain  Finch,  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  the  Chaffinch,  and  is  even  more  brilliantly  col- 
oured, its  plumage  being  a  combination  of  black, 
orange  and  white.  This  bird  breeds  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  migrating  south  in  winter. 
In  some  years  it  is  remarkably  abundant  in  Great 
Britain,  especially  when  severe  weather  prevails  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  The  wonderful  black  head 
and  neck  are  assumed  just  before  the  breeding  season 
—  not  by  a  change  of  feathers,  but  by  the  wearing 
away  of  the  brown  tips  of  the  fall  and  winter 
plumage.  See  Plate  18,  Fig.  104. 

Another  common  song-bird,  found  throughout 
Europe,  western  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa,  is  the 
Linnet,  also  in  great  demand  as  a  cage-bird.  The 
wonderful  rose-red  breast  which  distinguishes  the 
male  is  never  regained  by  captive  birds  after  their  first 
moult,  but  is  replaced  by  yellow.  The  name,  Linnet, 


218          BLRPS    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  for  flax,  linum,  on 
account  of  the  bird's  fondness  for  the  seeds  of  that 
plant.  See  Plate  17,  Fig.  100. 

A  very  beautiful  little  bird  of  the  Finch  family 
found  in  southwestern  Europe  and  the  British 
Islands,  is  the  Bullfinch,  which  gets  its  name  from  the 
thickness  of  its  neck.  The  sexes  differ  conspicuously 
in  colour,  the  females  lacking  completely  the  beautiful 
red  on  the  breast  of  the  male.  In  her  it  is  replaced  by 
chocolate-brown.  The  young  resemble  the  female, 
but  lack  the  black  cap,  which  is  common  to  both  sexes 
in  the  adult  birds. 

The  Bullfinch,  like  the  Chaffinch,  builds  a  remark- 
able nest,  though  the  workmanship  of  the  two  differs 
strikingly.  The  first  makes  a  wonderful  nursery  of 
fine  moss,  wool,  and  lichen  felted  together,  while  the 
Chaffinch  erects  a  platform  of  small  twigs,  sur- 
mounted by  fine  roots  and  a  little  hair  fashioned  into 
a  shallow  cup,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  See  Plate 
16,  Fig.  91. 

A  variety  of  the  Bullfinch  was  discovered  in  Alaska, 
in  1887. 

The  home  of  the  Pine-Grosbeak  is  in  the  far  North 
of  both  hemispheres — in  the  region  near  the  Arctic 
circle,  wherever  cone-bearing  trees  abound.  Here  it 
flourishes,  feeding  on  buds,  seeds  and  berries,  varied 
by  such  insects  as  come  within  its  reach.  In  this  coun- 
try it  migrates  south  in  winter  as  far  as  Virginia.  In 
the  male  the  plumage  is  mostly  rose-red,  changing  to 
ashy  below,  the  wings  darker,  with  white  bars.  In  the 
female  the  head  and  rump  are  brownish-yellow.  The 
American  species  is  similar  to  the  European,  but  is 


PURPLE  FINCH— INDIGO  BUNTING  219 

somewhat  more  brightly  coloured.  See  Plate  16, 
Fig.  92. 

The  Pine- Grosbeak  has  a  variety  of  pleasing  notes, 
and  is  a  popular  cage-bird  in  many  countries. 

Closely  allied  to  the  preceding  species  is  the  Cross- 
bill. This  bird  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its 
mandibles  cross  each  other  at  their  tips,  a  peculiarity 
which  looks  like  a  deformity,  but  which  enables  the 
bird  to  wrench  apart  pine-cones  and  extract  from 
them  the  seeds  which  form  the  bulk  of  their  food. 

The  Common  Red  Crossbill  is  found  in  both  this 
country  and  Europe,  breeding  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  continents  and  wintering  southward.  It 
migrates  in  large  flocks.  Our  American  species  is 
slightly  smaller  than  the  European,  and  is  more 
brightly  coloured.  Before  the  beautiful  red  plumage, 
which  distinguishes  the  male,  is  assumed,  a  livery  of 
orange-yellow  is  worn.  The  general  colour  of  the 
female  is  greenish-yellow,  with  brown  wings  and  tail. 
See  Plate  15,  Fig.  79. 

The  Purple  Finch  is  a  common  bird  of  eastern 
North  America  whose  name  is  quite  misleading,  for 
the  colour  over  its  entire  body  is  dull  rose-red,  darken- 
ing on  wings  and  tail.  The  latter  is  slightly  forked. 
The  female  differs  markedly  in  appearance,  being 
greyish-brown  above,  streaked  with  black,  and  white 
below,  streaked  or  spotted  with  dark  colour.  The 
male  does  not  assume  adult  plumage  for  two  years, 
until  that  time  resembling  the  female  in  colouring. 
Both  sexes  have  small  tufts  of  bristly  feathers  over 
the  nostrils.  The  Purple  Finch  is  one  of  our  most 


220  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

melodious  song-birds.  His  sweet  and  liquid  notes  are 
said  to  resemble  those  of  the  English  Chaffinch. 

The  Redpoll,  or  Redpoll  Linnet,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,  migrating  south  in  this  country  to  about  the 
middle  of  the  United  States.  The  bright  red  crown 
of  both  sexes  gives  it  its  name.  In  the  male  the  throat, 
breast,  and  rump  are  also  red,  the  upper  parts  black- 
ish-brown, streaked.  The  female  resembles  him,  but 
lacks  the  rose  colour  on  the  body.  In  general  habits 
it  is  like  its  relative,  the  American  Goldfinch,  and  is 
very  friendly  in  disposition,  frequenting  orchards  and 
gardens  and  often  closely  approaching  houses.  Its 
song  is  said  to  be  musical,  but  is  seldom  heard  far  from 
its  breeding-grounds  in  the  North. 

The  Indigo  Bunting,  an  exquisitely  coloured  little 
bird  often  seen  in  the  Eastern  States,  is  bright  blue 
on  the  back,  a  deeper  blue  on  the  head,  and  has  black 
wing-  and  tail-feathers  margined  with  blue.  The 
female  is  quite  Sparrow-like  in  appearance,  plain 
brownish-grey  taking  the  place  of  the  rich  blue  in 
the  plumage  of  the  male.  The  outer  wing-  and  tail- 
feathers,  however,  are  slightly  washed  with  blue.  The 
cheery  song  of  the  Indigo  Bunting  is  especially  wel- 
come during  the  month  of  August,  when  most  of  our 
other  song-birds  are  silent. 

In  the  Towhee,  or  Chewink,  the  upper  parts,  throat 
and  breast  are  black,  the  sides  reddish,  and  wings  and 
tail  marked  with  white.  This  is  another  member  of 
the  great  Finch  family  that  is  found  in  eastern  North 
America,  where  it  is  found  inhabiting  dense  thickets 
and  undergrowth.  In  this  bird  the  iris  is  red,  but  in 


to. 


87.  Ortolan 

(Emberiza  hortu- 

lana). 


89. 

Snow  Bunting 
(Passerina  nivalis). 


90, 
Greenfinch 
(Chlons  chh 


91.  BuUfineh 
(Pyrrhula 
pyrrkula). 


92.  Pine 

Gosbeak 

(Pinicola  enu- 

cleator). 


94.  European 
Tree  Sparrow 


93.  European 
House  Sparrow 
(Passer  domesticus) 


(Passer  montanm). 


WHYDAH-BIRD— JAVA  SPARROW  221 

the  White-eyed  Towhee,  a  more  southern  species,  it 
is  yellowish-white. 

The  Snowbird,  or  Junco,  breeds  in  the  northern 
parts  of  both  continents,  and  flocks  of  them  are  seen 
migrating  southward  as  the  cold  weather  comes  on. 
The  male  is  slate-grey  above,  darkening  on  the  head, 
and  white  below,  and  the  female  resembles  him,  but 
is  somewhat  browner  above. 

Often  seen  in  company  with  the  preceding  species, 
the  Snowflake,  or  Snow  Bunting,  is  sometimes  con- 
fused with  it.  This  bird,  however,  is  pure  white 
above,  with  black  markings  on  wings  and  tail,  and  the 
bill  is  black,  while  in  the  Snowbird  it  is  white.  After 
the  breeding  season,  the  white  of  the  upper  parts 
becomes  washed  with  brown.  These  little  birds  are 
not  at  all  shy,  and  are  frequently  seen  in  winter  seek- 
ing food  in  the  neighbourhood  of  human  dwellings. 
See  Plate  16,  Fig.  89. 

The  Paradise  Whydah-bird  is  a  South  African  spe- 
cies, found  on  swampy  ground  where  reeds  and  long 
grasses  flourish.  Kaffir  children  capture  numbers  of 
the  males  with  limed  twigs  and  strings,  and  also  by 
running  them  down,  the  birds  being  hampered  with 
their  long  tails.  During  the  season  of  courtship  these 
birds  perform  wonderful  evolutions  in  the  air.  On 
account  of  its  beautiful  plumage,  as  well  as  for  its 
song,  the  Whydah-bird  is  frequently  kept  in  confine- 
ment in  European  countries.  See  Plate  17,  Fig.  95. 

Both  the  Amaduvade  and  Paradise  Whydah-bird 
belong  to  a  group  of  birds  found  in  Africa  and  parts 
of  Australia  called  Weaver-birds,  from  the  remark- 
able nests  which  they  weave  of  roots  and  grasses.  By 


222  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

some  authorities  they  are  considered  a  distinct  family, 
though  they  admit  that  it  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Finch  family.  All  are  small,  Sparrow-like 
birds,  and  feed  principally  on  seeds  and  insects. 

The  Amaduvade,  or  Strawberry-finch,  is  very  popu- 
lar as  a  cage-bird,  and  is  imported  into  European 
markets  in  enormous  numbers.  The  male  in  breeding 
plumage  is  very  beautiful,  and,  in  addition,  has  a  brief 
but  sweet  song,  which  is  said  to  resemble  a  bugle-call. 
The  female  is  less  brilliant,  being  brown  above,  with  a 
light  patch  of  red  on  the  rump,  and  buff-coloured  be- 
low. These  birds  moult  twice  during  the  year,  and 
after  the  breeding  season  the  male  assumes  the  dress  of 
the  female.  The  males  are  pugnacious  little  birds,  and 
fight  with  spirit,  on  which  account  they  are  kept  by 
the  natives  in  India  to  afford  them  sport.  See  Plate 
17,  Fig.  96. 

The  Java  Sparrow,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  native 
of  the  Island  of  Java,  where,  like  the  House-sparrow 
here,  it  is  a  pest.  In  the  countries  where  it  has  been 
introduced  it  commits  great  ravages  on  fields  of  grain 
and  rice.  Of  late  years  the  Java  Sparrow  has  become 
much  sought  after  as  a  cage-bird,  and  breeds  readily 
in  confinement.  From  the  domesticated  birds  a  white 
race  has  been  raised,  which  is  highly  prized.  See 
Plate  17,  Fig.  99. 

Though  popularly  called  a  "Sparrow,"  this  bird  is 
not  really  very  closely  related  to  the  true  Sparrows, 
such  as  the  House-  and  Tree-sparrows. 

The  Buntings  are  generally  regarded  as  forming  a 
sub-family  of  the  Finches.  Many  of  them  are 
brightly  coloured,  but  others,  such  as  the  Corn  Bunt- 


ORTOLAN— LAPLAND  BUNTING    223 

ing,  or  Common  Bunting  of  the  Old  World,  is  quite 
sombrely  clad.  This  bird  bears  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  Skylark,  from  which,  however,  it  may  easily  be 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  conspicuously 
long  claw  to  the  hind-toe.  See  Plate  15,  Fig.  86. 

The  Yellow  Ammer,  or  Yellow  Bunting,  receives 
its  name  from  the  bright  yellow  of  the  head,  neck  and 
lower  parts.  Like  the  preceding  species,  it  is  a  com- 
mon European  resident,  but  has  no  representative  in 
this  country.  The  name  here  is  frequently  errone- 
ously applied  to  the  Flicker,  or  Golden-winged 
Woodpecker,  wrhich  has  no  affiliation  with  the  Bunt- 
ings. The  bird  which  most  nearly  resembles  the  true 
Yellowhammer  (a  form  in  which  the  name  often 
appears)  is  the  Bobolink  in  its  fall  plumage.  The 
Yellowhammer  is  also  known  as  the  Writing-lark, 
because  of  the  curious  scribblings,  as  of  a  pen,  over 
its  eggs ;  though  this  character  is  shared  by  the  eggs 
of  the  Buntings  in  general.  See  Plate  15,  Fig.  85. 

Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  European 
Buntings  is  the  Ortolan,  because  of  the  fame  which  it 
has  unfortunately  acquired  as  a  table  delicacy.  Com- 
mon throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  this  bird, 
as  soon  as  the  breeding  season  is  over,  returns  south- 
wards in  vast  flocks.  On  both  of  its  migratory  jour- 
neys, to  and  from  Europe,  it  is  beset  by  bird-catchers, 
who  make  enormous  hauls.  The  victims  are  kept  alive 
in  dark  places,  and  fed  until  they  become  very  fat, 
when  they  are  killed  to  supply  the  table.  The  natural 
food  of  this  bird  consists  of  insects  and  seeds  in  about 
equal  quantities.  The  Ortolan  much  resembles  its 
relative,  the  Yellow  Bunting,  but  the  head  is  greyish 


224  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

instead  of  yellow.  Neither  species  has  much  musical 
ability,  though  their  notes  are  heard  almost  contin- 
uously during  the  summer  months  in  European 
countries.-  See  Plate  16,  Fig.  87. 

Wherever  sluggish  streams  and  reedy  marshes 
abound  throughout  Europe,  there  the  Reed-bunting 
may  be  looked  for.  In  the  spring,  it  is  rather  hand- 
some in  its  reddish  plumage  and  black  head,  relieved 
by  the  white  of  the  under  parts,  but  in  the  autumn, 
after  the  new  plumage  has  been  assumed,  the  black 
hood  is  obscured  by  brown  tips  to  the  feathers.  As 
winter  proceeds,  these  tips  gradually  wear  off  until 
the  black  crown  is  once  more  in  evidence.  See  Plate 
16,  Fig.  88. 

Though  in  general  appearance  resembling  the 
Reed-bunting,  the  Lapland  Bunting  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  long  claw  of  the  hind-toe,  which  has 
gained  for  it  the  name  of  Long-spur.  See  Plate  15, 
Fig.  81. 

The  home  of  this  bird  is  in  the  far  North;  it  is, 
indeed,  a  circumpolar  species,  frequenting  swampy 
lands  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth.  Until  the 
year  1892  the  Lapland  Bunting  was  extremely  rare 
in  the  British  Islands,  but  since  that  time  England 
especially  has  been  invaded  by  great  numbers, 
annually,  though  only  a  few  have  ever  been  seen  in 
Scotland. 

The  beautiful  Cardinal-bird,  or  Virginia  Nightin- 
gale as  it  is  sometimes  called  on  account  of  its  famous 
song,  is  a  common  species  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  from  eight  to  nine  inches  in 
length,  the  face  is  black,  the  bill  red,  and  the  head 


SCARLET  TANAGER— CROWS       225 

bears  a  long  crest  of  feathers.  Most  of  the  plumage 
over  the  entire  body  is  a  deep  rich  red ;  darker  in  crest, 
wings  and  tail,  and  the  back  is  tinged  with  greyish. 
The  female  is  duller  in  colour  than  the  male.  Both 
sexes  have  a  charming  song,  that  of  the  female  being 
even  more  pleasing  in  quality  than  her  mate's.  Inhab- 
iting thickets  and  undergrowth,  this  bird  contrives,  in 
spite  of  its  brilliant  colouration,  to  escape  observation, 
even  when  its  rich  rolling  notes  proclaim  its  near 
presence.  See  Plate  17,  Fig.  101. 

TANAGERS 

The  Tanagers  form  a  group  of  New  World  birds, 
numbering  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  species,  and 
very  closely  allied  to  the  Finches.  Indeed,  the  char- 
acters which  distinguish  the  two  families  are  very 
slight  and  technical.  The  Tanagers  are  birds  of  beau- 
tiful and  varied  plumage,  many  of  them  being  bril- 
liantly coloured,  and  the  females  differ  conspicuously 
in  colouration  from  the  males.  They  are  most  abun- 
dantly represented  in  tropical  America,  only  five 
species  summering  in  the  United  States.  The 
Tanagers  are  woodland  birds,  feed  chiefly  upon  insects 
and  fruit,  and  only  a  few  species  have  any  vocal 
ability,  most  of  them  having  very  weak  voices. 

A  very  beautiful  species  common  in  the  eastern 
part  of  this  country  is  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  also 
known  as  the  Blackwinged  Redbird.  The  male  bird  is 
a  brilliant  scarlet,  with  black  wings  and  tail,  while 
the  female  is  a  light  olive-green  above,  darkening  on 
wings  and  tail,  and  greenish-yellow  below.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  summer  the  male  begins  to  moult  his 


226  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

scarlet  plumage,  and  replace  it  with  the  greenish 
colours  of  his  mate ;  but  the  black  wings  and  tail  are 
retained.  The  song  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager  is  char- 
acterised as  "a  loud,  cheery,  rhythmical  carol,  sug- 
gesting the  song  of  the  Robin." 

Another  exquisitely  coloured  species  is  the  Summer 
Redbird,  or  Summer  Tanager,  also  common  in  the 
eastern  part  of  this  country  as  far  north  as  Canada. 
This  bird  is  a  rich  rose-red  over  the  entire  body,  and 
the  female  is  greenish  and  yellow,  closely  resembling 
the  female  of  the  preceding  species. 

The  Little  Calliste,  or  Paradise  Tanager,  is  shown 
as  a  good  example  of  the  vividness  which  some  of 
these  birds  display  in  their  plumage.  It  is  one  of  the 
Central  and  South  American  species,  and  is  fairly 
common  as  a  cage-bird.  See  Plate  19,  Fig.  113. 

CROWS 

Although  in  the  past  there  has  been  much  difference 
of  opinion  among  ornithologists  as  to  which  family  of 
birds  is  entitled  to  the  highest  place  in  their  class,  it 
is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  Crows  are  the  most 
perfectly  developed  of  all  the  Passerine  birds.  In 
both  sexes,  and  in  all  stages  of  development,  the 
plumage  is  practically  the  same;  each  primary  and 
wing-covert  is  perfect  in  structure;  and  the  scales  on 
legs  and  feet  are  more  strongly  marked  than  in  any 
of  the  other  birds.  And  although  most  of  the  family 
have  no  powers  of  song,  their  voices  being  extremely 
harsh  and  disagreeable,  the  voice-muscles  of  all  are 
remarkably  well  developed.  The  Australian  Piping 
Crow,  a  beautiful  bird  having  plumage  varied  with 


95.  Paradise  AVhiuah-i/bd  . 


vade  Find* 
(Sporaginthus 
ymanactava). 


97.  Chaffinch 
(Fringilla  caelebs). 


98.  Goldfinch 
(Carduelis  cardvtelis). 


00.     J  ft 

Linnet 

(Linota  canna- 

bina). 


99.  Java  Sparrow 
,._    (Padda  ory- 
zivora). 


101.  Cai'dinal  (Cardinafa  cardinal-is}. 


CROWS— CARRION  CROW  227 

black  and  white,  is,  however,  exceptional  among  its 
relatives  in  possessing  a  most  enchanting  flute-like 
song,  to  which  it  gives  utterance  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  eyes  of  Crows  are  bright  and  intelligent  in 
expression.  The  wariness  and  sagacity  of  these  birds, 
indeed,  is  well  known,  and  these  traits  have  doubtless 
been  further  developed  on  account  of  the  constant 
persecution  to  which  they  have  for  ages  been  sub- 
jected by  agriculturists,  who  are  their  sworn  enemies 
in  consequence  of  the  injury  Crows  inflict  upon  crops. 
They  will  return  again  and  again  to  some  favourite 
feeding-ground,  their  wonderful  sagacity  enabling 
them  to  avoid  poison,  traps  and  other  snares  set  for 
their  destruction.  The  food  of  Crows  is  much  varied. 
They  are  especially  fond  of  small  living  creatures, 
such  as  mice,  nestlings,  worms,  and  so  on,  but  they 
also  eat  carrion,  and,  indeed,  they  are  practically 
omnivorous,  eating  fruit,  grain  and  seeds  as  well. 
The  great  Ravens  of  Europe  and  America  will  even 
attack  and  kill  small  lambs. 

The  Crow  family  numbers  about  two  hundred 
species,  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  except  New 
Zealand.  In  colour  most  of  them  are  shining  black, 
somewhat  iridescent  on  back,  wings  and  tail,  although 
the  plumage  of  certain  species,  as  the  Jays,  is  bril- 
liantly coloured.  The  bills  are  stout,  rather  long  and 
powerful,  and  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  is  cov- 
ered with  bristle-like  feathers.  The  feet  are  strong, 
and  the  toes  end  in  rather  heavy,  curved  claws. 

Crows  have  a  peculiarly  jaunty  manner  of  walking, 
and  in  disposition  are  a  strange  mixture  of  shyness 
and  boldness.  They  may  be  thoroughly  tamed,  and 


228  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

make  most  interesting  and  affectionate  pets,  exhibit- 
ing remarkable  intelligence.  A  curious  characteristic 
habit  is  the  stealing  and  secreting  of  small  bright 
objects  that  attract  their  attention,  about  which  they 
are  usually  so  cunning  that  it  is  difficult  to  detect  them 
in  their  thefts. 

The  best  known  species  in  this  country  is  the  com- 
mon American  Crow,  found  abundantly  throughout 
North  America,  and  too  familiar  to  require  more  than 
brief  mention.  The  plumage  is  black  over  the  whole 
body,  with  purplish  reflections,  and  the  female  is 
somewhat  duller  than  the  male.  The  nest  is  built  of 
sticks,  plastered  with  clay,  and  lined  with  feathers  and 
other  soft  materials.  Both  male  and  female  take 
turns  in  brooding  the  eggs,  and  are  untiring  in  their 
devotion  to  their  young.  In  the  fall,  Crows  gather  in 
enormous  flocks,  chattering  and  "cawing,"  and 
making  a  terrific  din. 

The  European  species  that  most  nearly  corresponds 
to  the  preceding  is  the  Carrion  Crow,  a  slightly  larger 
form,  common  in  western  Europe,  and  so  called  from 
its  fondness  for  carrion.  Unlike  the  American  Crow, 
this  bird  is  seldom  seen  in  flocks,  being  much  more 
solitary  in  habit.  Its  voice  also  is  quite  different. 

The  Fish  Crow,  closely  resembling  the  Common 
Crow,  but  smaller,  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  our 
Southern  States.  As  the  name  implies,  this  bird 
feeds  largely  on  fish,  and  is  usually  found  along  the 
coast  or  not  far  inland.  It  is  especially  common  in 
Florida,  and  at  places  along  the  Indian  River  every 
post  and  tree  is  occupied  by  individuals,  who  keep  up 


ROOK— EUROPEAN  JAY  229 

a  continual  calling.  The  voice  differs  from  that  of  the 
Common  Crow,  being  hoarser  and  more  nasal,  and 
easily  distinguishes  the  two  species. 

The  largest  and  most  famous  of  all  the  Crows  is  the 
Raven,  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. In  colouring  it  closely  resembles  the  Com- 
mon Crow,  the  plumage  over  the  entire  body  being 
black  with  steel-blue  reflections;  but  the  feathers  on 
the  throat  are,  long  and  pointed,  while  in  the  Crow 
they  are  short  and  rounded.  The  bill  of  the  Raven 
is  enormously  large  and  powerful,  and  the  bird  will 
attack  and  kill  small  lambs,  and  even  sheep  that  have 
been  partially  disabled.  It  also  eats  rabbits,  birds, 
eggs,  and  carrion,  and,  like  the  other  members  of  its 
family,  feeds  on  grain  and  fruit  as  well,  being 
extremely  voracious.  See  Plate  20,  Fig.  116. 

The  Raven  is  easily  tamed,  and  as  a  pet  has  few 
rivals,  becoming  much  attached  to  its  master  and  fol- 
lowing him  about  like  a  dog.  It  can  also  be  taught  to 
"talk,"  or  to  imitate  sounds  of  the  human  voice,  in  this 
respect  surpassing  some  of  the  Parrots. 

The  American  Raven  is  smaller  than  the  European 
species,  but  is  otherwise  identical.  It  is  found  in 
parts  of  the  West,  especially  where  the  Crow  is  not 
commonly  seen. 

The  Rook-  is  peculiar  among  Crows  in  having  a 
bare  face.  Young  Rooks  have  the  face  feathered,  as 
in  the  other  Crows,  and  the  nostrils  protected  by  stiff, 
forward-pointing  bristles;  but  after  the  first  moult, 
these,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  feathers  of  the  face, 
are  shed,  and  thereafter  the  skin  remains  bare  and 


230  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

white,  having  the  appearance  of  being  covered  with 
powder.  Why  these  feathers  should  thus  be  shed  and 
never  regained,  is  a  mystery  which  many  naturalists 
have  attempted  to  solve.  See  Plate  20,  Fig.  117. 

The  Rook  is  as  abundant  in  Europe  as  the  Common 
Crow  here,  living  in  societies  called  rookeries,  com- 
posed of  many  thousands  of  birds  and  nests.  Like 
our  species,  too,  it  is  a  great  pest  to  farmers,  but  its 
extreme  cunning  enables  it  to  avoid  many  traps  set  for 
its  destruction.  Rooks  are  not  considered  as  intelli- 
gent, however,  as  the  Crow  and  the  Raven,  though 
they  are  sometimes  tamed  for  pets.  The  young  birds 
are  fairly  good  eating,  and  many  of  them  are  shot  for 
the  table. 

The  Jays  are  found  in  both  the  Old  World  and  the 
New,  usually  in  wooded  districts.  All  have  harsh,  dis- 
cordant voices,  but  wonderful  ability  to  mimic  other 
birds.  Many  of  them  are  very  beautifully  coloured. 
They  have  long  tails,  and  short  rounded  wings.  A 
character  that  distinguishes  the  Jays  is  their  pecu- 
liarly light,  bounding  hop. 

The  European  Jay  is  a  prettily  coloured  bird 
inhabiting  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  especially 
abundant  in  Great  Britain,  in  spite  of  ruthless  perse- 
cution at  the  hands  of  game-keepers,  who  grossly 
exaggerate  the  harm  it  does.  It  feeds  largely  on 
acorns  and  other  forest  seeds.  See  Plate  20,  Fig.  119. 

The  American  Blue  Jay  is  very  striking  in  colour, 
being  beautifully  marked  in  various  shades  of  blue, 
with  a  mixture  of  black  and  white.  Like  its  European 
relative,  it  has  a  feathered  crest,  which  it  constantly 


115. 

European 

Magpie 

(Pica  pica}. 


x  18;  European  N 
•  /  '  '{tiuctftaga  '  caryocatactes) 


119.  European  Jay 
(Garrulue  glandarius) 


117.  Rook  (Corvus 


NUTCRACKER  231 

raises  and  depresses.  The  Blue  Jay  is  extremely 
noisy,  keeping  up  a  continual  chattering  and  calling 
in  its  harsh  and  penetrating  voice,  and  mimicking 
other  birds  apparently  for  its  own  amusement.  It 
appears  to  take  especial  delight  in  frightening  smaller 
birds  by  imitating  the  cry  of  the  Sparrow-Hawk. 

The  Canada  Jay  is  a  slightly  smaller  form  than  its 
blue  relative,  and  is  ashy  grey  in  colour,  with  black 
and  white  markings.  It  is  found  in  the  northern  part 
of  this  continent,  coming  southward  in  winter  as  far  as 
New  England. 

The  Jackdaw  and  the  Magpie  are  two  common 
European  birds  of  the  Crow  family,  which  share  the 
characteristics  of  the  tribe  in  general.  Magpies  have 
very  long  tails,  and  in  form  are  more  graceful  than  the 
tree  Crows.  Both  species  are  easily  tamed  and  taught 
to  imitate  the  human  voice  to  some  extent.  They  are 
very  cunning,  and  are  particularly  addicted  to  steal- 
ing small  bright  objects  and  carrying  them  to  their 
nests,  or  hiding  them  in  other  places.  See  Plate  19, 
Fig.  114. 

The  American  Magpie,  found  in  the  western  part 
of  North  America,  is  slightly  smaller  than  the 
European,  but  is  like  it  in  colouring.  The  Jackdaw 
has  no  representative  in  this  country.  See  Plate  20, 
Fig.  115. 

The  Nutcracker  is  an  Old  World  bird  whose  near- 
est relative  in  this  country  is  Clark's  Crow,  found  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
plumage  of  the  Nutcracker  is  brown,  spotted  with 
white.  The  seeds  of  cone-bearing  trees  form  its  prin- 


232  BIRDS    OF    THE    WORLD 

cipal  food,  but  it  also  eats  insects.  The  seeds  are  held 
in  the  claw  and  cracked  with  the  bill,  but  the  bird  is 
not  known  to  crack  nuts  in  this  manner,  as  its  name 
would  lead  one  to  suppose.  See  Plate  20,  Fig.  118. 


THE  END 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Acanthus  linaria  (Redpoll)    220 

Accentor  modularis  (Hedge  Sparrow) .  (Plate  12,  Fig.  58)  203 

Accipiter  atricapillus  (American  Goshawk) 61 

cooperii    (Cooper's  Hawk)    62 

velox    (Red-tailed    Hawk) 62 

nisus   (European  Sparrow  Hawk) ....  (Plate     3, 

Fig.  12)   61 

ACCIPITRES    56 

Acredula  caudata  (Long-tailed  Tit) . .  .  (Plate  14,  Fig.  78)  183 

Acrocephalus  palustris    (Marsh  Warbler) (Plate    13, 

Fig.  64)    202 

Acryllum  vulturinum  (Vulturine  Guinea  Fowl) 82 

Actodromas  minuta  (Little  Stint) (Plate  32,  Fig.  183)  109 

minutilla  (Least  Stint) 109 

/Egialitis  alexandrina  (Kentish  Plover)  (Plate  30,  Fig.  174)  103 

hiaticula  (Ring  Plover)  ....  (Plate  30,  Fig.  173)  102 

meloda   (Piping  Plover) 103 

Aid  galericulata  (Mandarin  Duck) 49 

Aix  sponsa  (Wood  Duck) 49 

Ajaia  ajaja  (Roseate  Spoonbill) 39 

Alauda  arborea  (Wood  Lark) (Plate  14,  Fig.  75)  21 1 

"       arvensis   (Skylark) (Plate  14,  Fig.  74)  210 

"       cristata  (Crested  Lark) (Plate  14,  Fig.  76)  211 

Albatross,  Black-browed  (Diomeda  melanophrys)  (Plate  38, 

Fig.  221 )    18 

Sooty  (Phoebetria  fuliginosa)   19 

Wandering   (Diomeda  exulans) 19 

Alca  torda  (Razor-billed  Auk) (Plate  40,  Fig.  239)  121 

Alcedo  ispida  (European  Kingfisher) .  . .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  40)  144 

Alle  alle  (Dovekie) (Plate  40,  Fig.  236)  123 

Amaduvade  ( Sporaeginthus  amandava) .  (Plate  17,  Fig.  96)  222 
Amazona  aestiva  (Blue-fronted  Amazon  Parrot)    (Plate  8, 

Fig.  37)    136 

233 


234  INDEX 

PAGE 

Ampelis  cedorum  (Cedar  Waxwing) 190 

garrulus    (Bohemian   Waxwing)    (Plate    18,   Fig. 

106)   190 

Anas  boschus  (Mallard) (Plate  35,  Fig.  203)  47 

obscura    (Black   Duck) 48 

Anhinga  anhinga  (Snake  Bird) (Plate  38,  Fig.  222)  25 

Ani   (Crotophaga  ani)    139 

Groove-billed  (Crotophaga  sulcirostris) 140 

Anous  stolidus  (Noddy  Tern) 119 

Anser  anser  (Grey-lag  Goose) (Plate  34,  Fig.  198)  52 

ANSERES    44 

Anthropoides  virgo   (Demoiselle  Crane) "94 

An  thus  pensilvanicus  (American  Pipit) 209 

trivialis  (European  Tree  Pipit)  (Plate  10,  Fig.  49)  209 

pratensis    (Meadow   Pipit) 209 

Antrostomus   carolinensis    (Chuck-will's-widow) 150 

vociferus   (Whippoorwill)    149 

Aptenodytes  longirostris  (Emperor  Penguin) 21 

patagonica   (King  Penguin) ..  (Plate  40,  Fig. 

234)    21 

parvus  (Little  Penguin) .  (Plate  40,  Fig.  235)  21 

Apteryx  (Apteryx  mantelli) (Plate  28,  Fig.   160)  7 

Aquila  chrysaetus  (Golden  Eagle) (Plate  2,  Fig.  8)  63 

"       maculata  (Spotted  Eagle) (Plate  3,  Fig.  10)  63 

Ara  ararauna  (Blue  and  Yellow  Macaw). (Plate  8,  Fig.  34)  135 

"    hyacinthia    (Hyacinthine   Macaw) 136 

"    macao    (Red  and  Blue  Macaw)    (Plate  8,  Fig.  35)  136 

Ardea   cineria    (European    Heron)    (Plate   33,   Fig.    192)  33 

herodias  (Great  Blue  Heron) 33 

"       occidentalis  (Great  White  Heron) 34 

"       wardi    (Ward's   Heron)     33 

ARDE^  23 

Asio  otus  (European  Long-eared  Owl) . .  (Plate  5,  Fig.  20)  161 

Astragalinus  tristis   (American  Goldfinch) 213 

Astur  palumbarius  (European  Goshawk) .  (Plate  4,  Fig.  14)  61 

Audubon 65,  126 

Auk,  Great  (Plautus  impennis) 123 

"      Little  (Alle  alle) (Plate  40,  Fig.  236)  123 

"      Razor-billed  (Alca  torda) (Plate  40,  Fig.  239)  121 

Auks 121 

Avocet,  American  ( Recurvirostra  americana)    104 

Avocet,  European  (Recurvirostra  avocetta) .  (Plate  32,  Fig. 

184)    104 


INDEX  235 

PAGE 

Aythya   americana    (Redhead) 48 

marila  (Common  Scaup)    50 

"       vallisneria   (Canvasback) 48 

B 

Balearica  pavonina  (Crowned  Crane) .  (Plate  34,  Fig.  197)  94 

Basolophus  bicolor  (Tufted  Titmouse) 184 

Bee-eater,  European  (Merops  apiaster)  .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  42)  145 
Bell-bird,     Naked-throated     (Chasmorhynchus     nudicollis) 

(Plate  10,  Fig.  48)    173 

Bittern,   American    (Botaurus   lentiginosus) 37 

European     (Botaurus    stellaris) .  (Plate    33,    Fig. 

194)   37 

Blackbird,  European  (Merula  merula) .  (Plate  n,  Fig.  54)  196 

Red-winged   (Agelaius  phceniceus) 192 

Blackcap   (Sylvia  atricapilla) (Plate  13,  Fig.  72)  2OI 

Bluebird   (Sialia  sialis)    199 

Blue-throat  (Cyanecula  cyanecula) ....  (Plate  12,  Fig.  63)  198 

Bobolink    (Dolichonyx   oryzivorus) 192 

Bob  White  (Colinus  virginianus)    91 

Bonasa  umbellus  (Ruffed  Grouse) 88 

togata   (Canada  Grouse) 89 

Botaurus  lentiginosus   (American  Bittern) 37 

stillaris    (European    Bittern) 37 

Brambling  (Fringilla  montifringilla) .  (Plate  18,  Fig.  104)  217 

Branta  bernicla  (Brant  Goose) (Plate  34,  Fig.  199)  52 

canadensis    (Canada  Goose) 52 

"       migricans    (Black   Brant) 52 

Brewster,  William   126 

Broadbills 1 73 

Buceros  bicornis  (Indian  Hornbill) ....  (Plate  9,  Fig.  39)  146 

Bubo  virginianus  (Great  Horned  Owl) 158 

Bullfinch  (Pyrrhula  pyrrhula) (Plate  1 6,  Fig.  91)  218 

Bunting,  Corn   (Miliaria  miliaria)  ...  (Plate  15,  Fig.  86)  222 

Indigo   (Cyanospiza  cyanea)    22O 

Lapland  (Calcarius  lapponicus)  ..  (Plate  15,  Fig. 

81)    224 

Reed  (Emberiza  schaeniclus)  .  (Plate  16,  Fig.  88)  227 

Snow  (Passerina  nivalis) ....  (Plate  16,  Fig.  89)  22 1 

Bustard,  Great  (Otis  tarda) (Plate  30,  Fig.  169)  100 

Little    (Tetrax  tetrax) (Plate  29,  Fig.   162)  99 

Buteo  buteo  (European  Buzzard) (Plate  4,  Fig.  16)  62 


236  INDEX 

PAGE 

Buteo  borealis  ( Red-tailed  Hawk) 62 

"      lineatus    (Red-shouldered   Hawk) 62 

Buzzard,  European  (Buteo  buteo) (Plate  4,  Fig.  16)  62 

"         Turkey  (Cathartes  aura) . . .  (Plate  41,  Fig.  243)  76 


C 

Cacabis  saxatilis  (Red-legged  Rock  Partridge) .  (Plate  25, 

Fig.    145) 87 

Cacatua  galerita   (Great  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoo) 137 

Calcarius  lapponicus  (Lapland  Bunting) ..  (Plate  15,  Fig. 

81)     224 

Calidris  arenaria  (Sanderling) (Plate  32,  Fig.  188)  no 

Callipepla  squamata   (Scaled  Partridge) 92 

Callocephalum  galeatum  (Helmet  Cockatoo) .  (Plate  8,  Fig. 

36) 138 

Calospiza  tatao  (Paradise  Tanager) ..  (Plate  19,  Fig.  113)  226 

Calcenas  nicobarica  (Nicobar  Pigeon)    128 

Campephilus  principals  (Ivory-billed  Woodpecker)  .  (Plate 

B  6,  Fig.  25)   1 68 

Canary  (Serinus  canarius) (Plate  18,  Fig.  105)  215 

Capercailzie  (Tetrao  urogallus) .  (Plate  24,  Figs.  138,  139)  90 

CAPRIMULGI    148 

Caprimullgus  europaeus   (European  Nightjar) ..  (Plate   19, 

Fig.    in)    149 

Caracara  (Polyborus  cherivay) (Plate  42,  Fig.  242)  68 

Cardinal  (Cardinalis  cardinalis) (Plate  17,  Fig.  101)  224 

Carduelis  carduelis  (European  Goldfinch)  .  .  (Plate  17,  Fig. 

98) ; 213 

Cariama  cristata  (Seriema) (Plate  42,  Fig.  245)  94 

Carpodacus  purpureus   (Purple  Finch) 219 

Cassowary,  Helmeted  (Casuarius  galeatus)  .  (Plate  28,  Fig. 

159)    .•  2,  3 

Casuarius  galeatus  (Helmeted  Cassowary) .  (Plate  28,  Fig. 

159)    •••.• 2,   3 

Catbird   ( Galeoscoptes  carolinensis) 188 

Catharista  urubu  (Black  Vulture) 77 

Cathartes  aura  (Turkey  Vulture)  .  .  .  (Plate  41,  Fig.  243)  76 

calif ornianus  (California  Condor.)    75 

Cepphus  grylle   (Guillemot) 121 

Certhia  familiaris  (European  Tree-creeper)  .  (Plate  21,  Fig. 

127)     1 86 


INDEX  237 

PAGE 

Certhia  familiaris  americana  (American  Brown  Creeper) . .  186 

Ceryle  alcyon  (American  Kingfisher) 144 

Chacalacca  (Ortalis  vetula  maccalli) 79 

Chapman,  Frank  M 42,  159,  205 

Chaffinch  (Fringilla  caelebs) (Plate  17,  Fig.  97)  216 

Chapparal-cock  (Geococcyx  calif ornianus) .  (Plate  41,  Fig. 

246)  141 

CHARADRIIFORMES  101 

Charadrius  dominicus  (Golden  Plover) .  (Plate  30,  Fig. 

170)  102 

Chasmorhynchus  nudicollis  (Bell-bird)  .  (Plate  10,  Fig.  48)  174 

Chat,  Yellow-breasted  (Icteria  virens)  205 

Chelidonaria  tirbica  (House-martin)  ..  (Plate  19,  Fig.  109)  179 

Chen  hypoboreus  (Snow  Goose) ...  (Plate  34,  Fig.  200)  52 

Chewink  (Pipilo  erythrophthalmus) 220 

Chickadee  ( Parus  atricapillus) 184 

Chloris  chloris  (Greenfinch) (Plate  1 6,  Fig.  90)  212 

Chordeiles  virginianus  (Nighthawk)  150 

Chrysolophus  pictus  (Golden  Pheasant) .  (Plate  25,  Figs. 

146,  147) 83 

Chuck-will's-widow  (Antrostomus  carolinensis) 150 

Ciconia  ciconia  (European  White  Stork) ..  (Plate  33,  Fig. 

190" 38 

CICONLE  23 

Cinclus  cinclus  (European  Water  Ouzel) .  (Plate  10,  Fig. 

50)    194 

mexicanus   (American  Dipper)    195 

Circus  hudsonius  (American  Harrier) 61 

"      cyaneus  (European  Hen  Harrier)  (Plate  4,  Fig.  15)  61 

Qamatores    173 

Clangula-clangula  (Golden-eye  Duck)  (Plate  36,  Fig.  213)  47 

Coccyges  americanus   (Yellow-billed  Cuckoo)    139 

Cockatoo,  Great  Black  (Microplossus  aterrimus) 137 

Helmet  ( Callocephalon  galeatum) .  (Plate  8,  Fig. 

36) 138 

Great   Sulphur-crested    (Cacatua  galerita) 137 

Cock-of-the-rock  (Rupicola  rupicola)  .  (Plate  19,  Fig.  112)  173 

Cocothraustes  cocothraustes  (Hawfinch). (Plate  14,  Fig.  77)  213 

Colaptes  auratus  luteus  (Common  Flicker) 170 

Colaeus  monedula  (Jackdaw) (Plate  19,  Fig.  114)  231 

Colinus  virginianus   (Bob  White)    91 

Colomba  aenas  (Stock  Dove) (Plate  22,  Fig.  131)  129 

"      livia  (Rock  Dove) (Plate  23,  Fig.  135)  129 


238  INDEX 


PAGE 


Colomba  livia  var.  (Pouter  Pigeon)..  (Plate  23,  Fig.  134)  130 

fasciata  (Band-tailed  Pigeon) 131 

COLUMB^E   124 

Columbigallina  passerina  terrestris   (Ground  Dove) 130 

Colymbus  auritus  (Horned  Grebe) 17 

cristatus  (Great  Crested  Grebe)  .  (Plate  39,  Fig. 

232)    16 

fluviatilis  (Little  Grebe)  .  .  .  (Plate  40,  Fig.  237)  16 

Condor,  California  (Cathartes  calif ornianus) 75 

South  American    ( Sarcoramphus   gryphus)  .  (Plate 

i,  Fig.  i)    74 

Contopus  virens   (Wood  Pewee)    176 

Conurus  carolinensis  (Carolina  Paroquet) ..  (Plate  7,  Fig. 

32)    135 

Coot,  European  (Fulica  atra) (Plate  29,  Fig.  167)  99 

American    (Fulica  americana) 99 

CoquimBo  (Speotyto  cunicularia  hypogaea)    160 

CORACLE    142 

Coracius  garrulus  (European  Roller) . . .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  43)  142 
Cormorant,    Common    ( Phalacrocorax    carbo) .  (Plate    37, 

Fig.  218)   24 

Harris's   Phalacrocorax   harrisi) 25 

Corvus  americanus  (Common  American  Crow) 228 

corone  (Carrion  Crow)    228 

corax  (European  Raven) (Plate  20,  Fig.  116)  229 

corax  sinuatus  (American  Raven)    229 

"       ossifragus  (Fish  Crow) 228 

Coturnix  coturnix  (Common  European  Quail) . .  (Plate  24, 

Fig.  141)   88 

Coues,  Elliott 195 

Cowbird   ( Molothrus  ater)    193 

Crake,  Carolina  (Porzana  Carolina) 97 

Little  (Zapornia  parva) (Plate  29,  Fig.  164)  97 

"       Spotted  (Porzana  porzana) ..  (Plate  29,  Fig.  166)  97 

Corncrake  (Crex  crex) (Plate  30,  Fig.  168)  97 

Crane,  Crowned  (Balearica  pavonina)  .  (Plate  34,  Fig.  197)  94 

Demoiselle    (Anthropoides  virgo) 94 

"       Common    European    (Grus   grus)  .  (Plate   29,   Fig. 

161)    93 

Little  Brown   (Grus  canadensis)    94 

Sandhill   (Grus  mexicana) 94 

"       Whooping  (Grus  americana) 94 

Creeper,  American  Brown  (Certhia  familiaris  americana)  .  .  186 


INDEX  239 

PAGE 

Creeper,  European  Tree   (Certhia  familiaris) ..  (Plate  21, 

Fig.  127)   186 

Wall  (Tichodroma  muraria).( Plate  21,  Fig.  126)  187 

Creepers   1 86 

Crossbill,  American  Red   (Loxia  curvirostra  minor) 219 

European  (Loxia  curvirostra) .  (Plate  15,  Fig.  79)  219 

Crotophaga  ani  (Ani) 139 

Sulcirostris    (Groove-billed  Ani) 140 

Crow,  Common  American  (Corvus  americanus) 228 

Carrion    (Corvus  corone)    228 

Fish  (Corvus  ossifragus) 228 

Crows    226 

Cuckoo,  Black-billed   (Coccyzus  erythrophthalmus) 139 

Common  European    (Cuculus  canorus)  .  (Plate  7, 

Fig.  30)    139 

Yellow-billed    (Coccyzus  americanus)    139 

CUCULI    . . . 133 

Cuculus,  canoris  (European  Cuckoo)  .  . .  (Plate  7,  Fig.  30)  139 

Curassow,  Globose  (Crax  globicera)  .  .  (Plate  41,  Fig.  244)  79 

Curlew,  Eskimo  (Numenius  borealis)   113 

European    (Numenius    arquatus)  .  (Plate    31,    Fig. 

176) 113 

Hudsonian    (Numenius  hudsonicus)    113 

Long-billed    (Numenius  longirostris) 112 

Crymophilus  rulicarius  (Wilson's  Phalarope) 113 

Cyanecula  cyanecula  (Blue-throat)  ...  (Plate  12,  Fig.  63)  198 

Cyanocitta  cristata  (American  Blue  Jay) 230 

Cyanospeza  cyanea  (Indigo  Bunting)   220 

Cygnus  olor  (European  Mute  Swan) .  (Plate  35,  Fig.  201)  54 

CYPSELI  148 


D 

Dabchick  (Colymbus  fluviatilis) (Plate  40,  Fig.  237)  1 6 

Dacelo  gigas   (Giant  Kingfisher) 143 

Dafila  acuta  (Pintail  Duck) (Plate  35,  Fig.  205)  47 

Darter  (Anhinga  anhinga) .  (Plate  38,  Fig.  222)  25 

Daulius  luscinia  (Nightingale) (Plate  12,  Fig.  59)  198 

Didus  ineptus  (Dodo)    126 

Diomeda  exulans  (Wandering  Albatross) 19 

melanophrys  (Black-browed  Albatross) .  (Plate  38, 

Fig.  221)   18 


240  INDEX 

PAGE 

Dipper,  American  (Cinclus  mexicanus) 195 

"       European  (Cinclus  cinclus)  ....  (Plate  10,  Fig.  50)  195 

Dippers 194 

Dodo  (Didus  ineptus) 126 

Dolichonyx,  oryzivorus  (Bobolink)    „ 192 

Dove,  Ground   (Columbigallina  passerina  terrestris) 130 

Mourning  (Zenaida  macroura)    130 

Ring  ( Streptopelia  risoria) ....  (Plate  22,  Fig.  130)  128 

"      Rock  (Columba  livia) (Plate  23,  Fig.  135)  129 

Stock  (Columba  aenas) (Plate  22,  Fig.  131)  129 

Turtle  (Turtur  turtur) (Plate  23,  Fig.  137)  127 

"      White-winged    (Melopella  leucoptera) 131 

Dovekie  (Alle  alle) (Plate  40,  Fig.  236)  123 

Dryobates  minor   (Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker)  .  (Plate  6, 

Fig.  27 )   1 69 

Dromaeus  novaehollandiae   (Emu)    I 

Duck,  Aylesbury 49 

"      Black   (Anas  obscura) 48 

Canvasback  (Aythya  vallisneria) 48 

"      Eider  (Somateria  mollissima)  .  (Plate  35,  Fig.  206)  46 
"      Golden-eye   (Clangula  clangula) ...  (Plate  36,  Fig. 

213)     47 

Goosander  (Merganser  merganser) .  (Plate  36,  Fig. 

207)    45 

Mallard   (Anas  boschus) (Plate  35,  Fig.  203)  47 

Mandarin   (Aid  galericulata) 49 

"      Muscovy    49 

"      Old  Squaw  (Harelda  hyemalis) .  (Plate  36,  Fig.  208)  47 

"      Pekin    49 

Pintail  (Dafila  acuta) (Plate  35,  Fig.  205)  47 

"     Redhead  (Aythya  americana) 48 

Scaup  (Aythya  marila)    50 

"      Scoter,  Velvet   (Oidemia  fusca) (Plate  36,  Fig. 

212)    46 

"      Sheldrake,  European  (Tadorna  tadorna) .  (Plate  36, 

Fig.  209)    50 

Smew  (Mergus  albellus) (Plate  36,  Fig.  210)  46 

Tufted,  (Nyroca  fuligula) (Plate  36,  Fig.  211)  47 

Teal,  Blue-winged  (Querquedula  discors) 48 

"     Teal,   European    (Nettion   crecca) .  (Plate   35,   Fig. 

202)    48 

"      Teal,   Green-winged    (Nettion  carolinensis) 48 

"     Widgeon  (Mareca  penelope) . .  (Plate  35,  Fig.  204)  47 


INDEX  241 

PAGE 

Duck,  Wood  (Aix  sponsa)    49 

Dunlin  (Pelidina  alpina) (Plate  32,  Fig.  185)  108 

E 

Eagle,  Bald   (Haliaetus  lucocephalus) (Frontispiece)  64 

Golden  (Aquila  chrysaetus) (Plate  2,  Fig.  8)  63 

Harpy  (Thrasaetus  harpyia)  ..  (Plate  42,  Fig.  241)  66 

Kamchatka  Sea  (Haliaetus  pelagicus) 65 

Spotted  (Aquila  maculata) (Plate  3,  Fig.  10)  63 

White-tailed  (Haliaetus  albicilla) .  (Plate  3,  Fig.  9)  64 
Ectopistes  migratorius  (Passenger  Pigeon)  .  (Plate  22,  Fig. 

133) • 126 

Egret,  American  (Herodias  egretta) 36 

Little  (Garzetta  candidissima) 35 

Great  White  (Herodias  alba)  .  (Plate  33,  Fig.  193)  35 

"       Snowy  (Egretta  candidissima)    35 

Elanus  leucurus  (White-tailed  Kite) 60 

Elanoides  forficatus  (Swallow-tailed  Kite)   60 

Ereunetes  pusillus    ( Semipalmated   Sandpiper) 109 

Erolia  ferruginea  (Curlew  Sandpiper)    109 

Emberiza  schaeniclus  (Red  Bunting) ..  (Plate  16,  Fig.  88)  224 

hortulana   (Ortolan) (Plate  16,  Fig.  87)  223 

Emu,  Common   (Dromaeus  novaehollandiae)    I 

Eurylaemidae    (Broadbills) 173 

F 

Falco  islandus  (Gyrfalcon) (Plate  2,  Fig.  7)  71 

peregrinus  anatum  (Duck  Hawk) 71 

Finch,  Purple  (Carpodacus  purpureus)    219 

"      Strawberry  ( Sporaeginthus  amandava) 22 1 

Finches 212 

Flamingo,  American  ( Phaenicopterus  ruber) 42 

European     (Phaenicopterus    roseus)  .  (Plate    33, 

Fig.  189)    42 

Flicker,  Common  (Colaptes  auratus  luteus)   170 

Flycatcher,  Great  Crested  (Myiarchus  luteiventris)    176 

Pied   (Muscicapa  atricapilla) 180 

Spotted  (Muscicapa  grisola) .  (Plate  10,  Fig.  47)  180 

Flycatchers,    American 174 

European    180 

Fowl,  Domestic  (Gallus  gallus,  var.) .  (Plate  27,  Fig.  156)  86 


242  INDEX 


PAGE 


Fratercula  arctica  (Puffin) (Plate  39,  Fig.  233)  122 

Frigate-bird  (Fregata  aquila) (Plate  37,  Fig.  219)  31 

Fringilla  montifringilla  (Brambling)  .  (Plate  18,  Fig.  104)  217 

caslebs  (Chaffinch) (Plate  17,  Fig.  97)  217 

Fulica  americana  (American  Coot) 99 

atra  (European  Coot) (Plate  29,  Fig.  167)  99 

Fulmar    (Fulmarus   glacialis) 120 

G 

Galeoscoptes  carolinensis   (Catbird) 188 

Galerida  cristata  (Crested  Lark) (Plate  14,  Fig.  76)  21 1 

GALLIFORMES    78 

Gallinago  gallinago  (European  Snipe) .  (Plate  31,  Fig.  178)  105 

gallinula  (Jack  Snipe) 105 

media  (Great  Snipe) (Plate  31,  Fig.  179)  105 

Gallinula  chloropus   (Moor-hen)  ....  (Plate  29,  Fig.   165)  99 

Gallinule,  Florida  (Gallinula  galeata) 98 

Purple   (lonornis  martinica) 98 

Gallus  gallus,  var.  (Domestic  Fowl) .  (Plate  27,  Fig.  156)  86 

ferrugineus    (Jungle  Fowl) 85 

Gannet,  Common  (Sula  bassana) (Plate  37,  Fig.  217)  27 

Garrulus  glandarius  (European  Jay)  .  (Plate  20,  Fig.  119)  230 

Garzetta  candissima  (Little  Egret) 35 

Gavia  arctica  (Black-throated  Loon) .  (Plate  39,  Fig.  231)  14 

imber   (Common  Loon) 15 

lumme    (Red-throated   Loon) 16 

Geococcyx  calif ornianus  (Road-runner)  (Plate  41,  Fig.  246)  141 
Gennaeus  nycthemerus    (Silver  Pheasant) .  (Plate  26,   Fig. 

150    83 

Glareola  pratincola  (Pratincole) (Plate  31,  Fig.  175)  101 

Goldcrest  (Regulus  regulus) (Plate  13,  Fig.  69)  20 1 

Goldfinch,  American   (Astragalinus  tristis) 213 

European  (Carduelis  carduelis) .  (Plate  17,  Fig. 

98) 213 

Goosander  (Merganser  merganser)  .  .  (Plate  36,  Fig.  207)  45 

Goose,   Black   Brant    (Branta  migricans) 52 

"       Brant  (Branta  bernicla) (Plate  34,  Fig.  199)  52 

Canada  (Branta  canadensis) 52 

Grey-lag  (Anser  anser) (Plate  34,  Fig.  198)  52 

"       Snow  (Chen  hyperboreus) . . .  (Plate  34,  Fig.  200)  52 

Solan  (Sula  bassana) (Plate  37,  Fig.  17)  27 

"       White-fronted   (Anser  albifrons  gambeli) 53 


INDEX  243 

PAGE 

Goshawk,  American  (Accipter  atricapillus) 61 

European    (Astur  palumbarius) .  (Plate   4,    Fig. 

14)   61 

Goura  coronata   (Crowned  Pigeon)  .  (Plate  23,  Fig.   136)  128 

Grackle,  Boat-tailed  ( Megaquiscalus  major) 193 

Purple  (Quiscalus  quiscula) 193 

Grebe,  Great  Crested  (Colymbus  cristatus) .  (Plate  39,  Fig. 

232)    16 

Horned  (Colymbus  auritus)   17 

"       Little  (Colymbus,  fluviatilis) .  (Plate  40,  Fig.  237)  1 6 

"       Pied-billed    (Podilymbus  podiceps) 17 

Greenfinch  (Chloris  chloris) (Plate  16,  Fig.  90)  212 

Greenshank  (Totanus  nebularius)  ....  (Plate  31,  Fig.  180)  107 

Groesbeck,  Pine  (Pinicola  enucleator)  .  .  (Plate  16,  Fig.  92)  21 8 

Grouse,  Black  (Lyrurus  tetrix) (Plate  24,  Fig.  142)  90 

Canada  (Bonasa  umbellus  togata) 89 

Dusky  (Dendragapus  obscurus) 89 

"       Hazel   (Tetrastes  bonasia)  ..  (Plate  24,  Fig.   140)  91 
Ptarmigan,    Alpine    (Lagopus    mutus) .  (Plate    24, 

Fig.  143)    89 

Ruffed  (Bonasa  umbellus)   88 

Sage    (Centrocercus  urophasianus) 89 

Sharp-tailed  (Pediaecetes  phasianellus)    89 

GRUIFORMES    % 93 

Grus  canadensis  (Little  Brown  Crane)    94 

"     grus   (European  Crane) (Plate  29,  Fig.   161)  93 

americana   (Whooping  Crane) 94 

rriexicana  ( Sandhill  Crane) 94 

Guan  (Ortalis  vetula  maccalli) 79 

Guara  alba  (White  Ibis) 41 

rubra  ( Scarlet  Ibis) 40 

Guillemot   (Cepphus  grylle) 121 

Guinea-fowl  (Numida  meleagris) ....  (Plate  27,  Fig.  154)  8l 

Vulturine   (Acryllium  vulturinum) 82 

Gull,    Black-headed    (Larus    ridibundus) .  (Plate    39,    Fig. 

228)    117 

Great  Black-backed   (Larus  marinus)    117 

"     Herring  (Larus  argentatus) ...  (Plate  38,  Fig.  223)  116 

Kittiwake  (Rissa  tredactyla) (Plate  38,  Fig.  225)  117 

Laughing    (Larus   atricilla) 118 

"     Mew  (Larus  canus) (Plate  38,  Fig.  224)  117 

Gypaetus  barbatus   (Lammegeier) (Plate  I,  Fig.4)  73 

Gypagus  papa  (King  Vulture) (Plate  2,  Fig.  5)  74 


244  INDEX 

PAGE 

Gyps  fulvus  (Griffon  Vulture) (Plate  I,  Fig  3  73 

Gyrfalcon  (Falco  islandus) (Plate  2,  Fig.  7)  71 

H 

Haematopus  bachmani   (Black  Oyster-catcher) 112 

palliatus  (American  Oyster-catcher) 1 12 

Haliaetus  albicilla  (White-tailed  Eagle) .  (Plate  3,  Fig.  9)  64 

lucocephalus    (Bald  Eagle)  ....  (Frontispiece)  ..  64 

pelagicus   (Kamachatka  Sea-eagle) 65 

Haploderma  Narina  (African  Trogon)  .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  44)  165 

Harelda  hycmalis  (Old  Squaw  Duck) .  (Plate  36,  Fig.  208)  47 

Hawfinch  (Cocothraustes  cocothraustes).( Plate  14,  Fig.  77)  213 

Hawk,  American  Harrier  (Circus  hudsonius) 61 

European  Hen  Harrier  (Circus  cyaneus) .  (Plate  4, 

Fig.  15)  ^ ;> 61 

Cooper's   (Accipiter  cooperii)    62 

"       Duck   (Falco  peregrinus  anatum) , .  . .  .  71. 

Goshawk,   American    (Accipiter   atricapillus) 61 

"       Goshawk,  European  (Astur  palumbarius) .  (Plate  4, 

Fig.  14)    61 

Red-shouldered  (Buteo  lineatus) 62 

Red-tailed   (Buteo  borealis) 62 

Sharp-shinned  (Accipter  velox) 62 

"       American  Sparrow  (Falco  sparverius) 7° 

"       European  Sparrow  (Accipiter  nisus) .  (Plate  3,  Fig. 

12) 61 

Heliactin  bilopha  (Double-crested  Humming  Bird) .  (Plate 

21,  Fig.   121)    152 

Herodias  egretta  (American  Egret) 36 

alba  (Great  White  Egret)  .  .  (Plate  33,  Fig.  193)  35 

Heron,  European  (Ardea  cinerea) (Plate  33,  Fig.  192)  33 

Great  Blue  (Ardea  herodias) 33 

Great  White  (Ardea  occidentalis) 34 

Little  Green  (Butorides  virescens) 34 

Louisiana  (Hydranassa  tricolor  ruficollis) 35 

Night,      Black-crowned      (Nycticorax     nycticorax 

naevius)    35 

"       Night,  Yellow-crowned   (Nyctanassa  violaceus)  .  . .  35 

"       Ward's  (Ardea  herodias  wardi) ;  .  33 

Himantopus  himantopus   (European  Stilt)  .  (Plate  30,  Fig. 

172) 104 

"           mexicanus  (Black-necked  Stilt)   104 


INDEX  245 

PAGE 

Hirundo  rustica  (European  Barn  Swallow) .  (Plate  18,  Fig. 

108)    179 

Hoopoe,  Common  (Upupa  epops)  ....  (Plate  22,  Fig.  129)  145 

Hornbill,  Indian  (Buceros  bicornis)  ....  (Plate  9,  Fig.  39)  146 
Humming-bird,    Coquette    (Lophornis   ornata. .  (Plate   21, 

Fig.  122)    152 

Double-crested    (Heliactin    bilopha) (Plate 

21,  Fig.   121)    152 

Fire-tailed    (Lesbia  sparganura) (Plate  21, 

Fig.   123)    152 

Racquet-tailed    (Spathura   underwoodi) ..  (Plate 

21,  Fig.  125) 153 

Ruby-throated    (Trochilus   colubris)     154 

Topaz  (Topaza  pella) ....  (Plate  21,  Fig.  124)  153 

Hylocichla  fuscescens  (Wilson's  Thrush)    120 

mustelina  (Wood  Thrush) 199 

I 

Ibis,  Glossy  (Plegadis  autumnalis) 41 

1    Sacred  (Ibis  aethiopica) (Plate  34,  Fig.  196)  40 

Scarlet  ( Guara  rubra) 40 

White   (Guara  alba) 41 

Wood   (Tantalus  loculator) 40 

Icteria  virens  (Yellow-breasted  Chat) 205 

Icterus  galbula  (Baltimore  Oriole) 191 

Ictinia  mississippiensis  (Mississippi  Kite) 60 

IMPENNES 14 

lonornis  martinica  (Purple  Gallinule) 98 

Iridoprocne  bicolor  (Tree  Swallow) 180 

j 

Jabiru  (Mycteria  americana) 39 

Jacana,  Mexican  ( Jacana  spinosa) 113 

Jackdaw  (Colaeus  monedula) (Plate  19,  Fig.   114)  231 

Jaeger,  Parasitic   ( Stercorarius  parasiticus)  .  (Plate  38,  Fig. 

226)    121 

Jay,  American  Blue  (Cyanocitta  cristata) 230 

'    Canada   (Perisoreus  canadensis)    231 

"    European  (Garrulus  glandarius) .  (Plate  20,  Fig.  119)  230 

Laughing  Jackass  (Dacelo  gigas) 143 

Junco  (Junco  hyemalis)    221 


246  INDEX 

PAGE 

Jungle- fowl  (Gallus  ferrugineus) 85 

Jynx  torquilla  (Wryneck) (Plate  7,  Fig.  31 )  170 

K 

Kakapo   (Stringops  habroptilus)    138 

Kea  (Nestor  notabilis)   137 

Kestrel  (Cerchneis  tinnunculus)    (Plate  3,  Fig.  n)  70 

Killdeer  (Oxyechus  vociferus)    103 

Kingbird   (Tyrannus  tyrannus)    175 

Kingfisher,  Belted  (Ceryle  alcyon)    144 

Common   European    (Alcedo  ispida)  .  (Plate  9, 

Fig.  40)    144 

Giant  (Dacelo  gigas)    143 

Kinglet,  Golden-crowned  (Regulus  satrapa)    202 

Ruby-crowned    (Regulus  calendula)    202 

Kite,  European  Red  (Milvus  milvus)  .  . .  (Plate  4,  Fig.  17)  60 

Mississippi    ( Ictinia  mississippiensis)    60 

Swallow-tailed   (Elanoides  forficatus)    60 

White-tailed   (Elanus  leucurus)     60 

Kittiwake  (Rissa  tridactyla) (Plate  38,  Fig.  225)  117 

Kiwi    (Apteryx  mantelli) (Plate  28,  Fig.  160)  7 

Knot  (Tringa  canutus) (Plate  32,  Fig.  187)  no 

L 

Lagopus  mutus  (Alpine  Ptarmigan) . .  (Plate  24,  Fig.  143)  89 

Lammergeier  (Gypaetus  barbatus) (Plate  I,  Fig.  4)  73 

Lanius  borealis  (Northern  Shrike)    181 

excubitor  (Great  Grey  Shrike).. (Plate  10,  Fig.  46)  181 

"       ludovicianus  (Loggerhead  Shrike)    182 

"       collurio  (Red-backed  Shrike) ..  (Plate  10,  Fig.  45)  182 

Lapwing  (Vanellus  vanellus) (Plate  30,  Fig.  171)  103 

Lark,  Horned  (Otocoris  alpestris)    211 

"      Prairie  Horned   (Otocoris  alpestris  praticola) 212 

"      Crested   (Galerida  cristata) (Plate  14,  Fig.  76)  211 

"      Skylark  (Alauda  arvensis) (Plate  14,  Fig.  74)  210 

"      Wood   (Alauda  arborea) (Plate  14,  Fig.  75)  211 

Larks    210 

Larus  atricilla  (Laughing  Gull)    118 

argentatus  (Herring  Gull) ...  (Plate  38,  Fig.  223)  116 

"       canus  (Mew  Gull) (Plate  38,  Fig.  224)  117 

"       marinus   (Great  Black-backed  Gull)    117 

"       ridibundus    (Black-headed   Gull) ..  (Plate   39,   Fig. 

228)    H7 


INDEX  247 

PAGE 

Leptoptilus  argala  (Indian  Adjutant  Stork)    38 

crumenifer   (African  Adjutant  Stork)  ..  (Plate 

34,  Fig.^  195) 38 

Lesbia  Sparganura  (Fire-tailed  Hummingbird) ..  (Plate  21, 

Fig.    123)     ; 152 

Linnet  (Linota  cannabina) (Plate  17,  Fig.  100)  217 

Longspur,   Lapland    (Calcarius   lapponicus) (Plate   15, 

Fig.   81)    224 

Loon,  Black-throated  (Gavia  arctica)  .  (Plate  39,  Fig.  231)  14 

Common    (Gavia  imber)    15 

Red-throated  (Gavia  lumme)   16 

Lophophanes  cristatus  (Crested  Tit)..  (Plate  15,  Fig.  82)  183 
Lophornis  ornata  (Coquette  Hummingbird) ....  (Plate  21, 

Fig.  122)   152 

Lophophorus  impeganus  (Impeyan  Pheasant) 83 

Lophortyx  californicus  (California  Partridge) 92 

gambelii  (Gambel  Partridge) . . .  (Plate  41,  Fig. 

245)    92 

Loxia  curvirostra  (European  Crossbil) .  (Plate  15,  Fig.  79)  219 

minor   (American  Crossbill)    219 

Lunda  cirrhata  (Tufted  Puffin)    122 

Lyrurus  tetrix   (Black  Grouse)  ...  (Plate  24,  Fig.   142)..  90 

Lyre-bird   (Menura  superba) (Plate  14,  Fig.  73)  177 

M 

Macaw,  Blue  and  Yellow  (Ara  ararauna) . .  (Plate  8,  Fig. 

34)   •  ••• 135 

Hyacinthine  (Ara  hyacinthina)   136 

Red  and  Blue  (Ara  macao) (Plate  8,  Fig.  35)  136 

Magpie,  American  (Pica  pica  hudsonia) 231 

European  (Pica  pica) (Plate  20,  Fig.  115)  231 

Man-o'-war  Bird  (Fregata  aquila)  .  . .  (Plate  37,  Fig.  219)  31 

Marabou   (Leptoptilus  crumenifer)  ..  (Plate  34,  Fig.   195)  38 

Marecca  penelope   (Widgeon) (Plate  35,  Fig.  204)  47 

Marsh-Hen   (Rallus  crepitans)    97 

Martin,  House  (Chelidonaria  urbica)  .  (Plate  19,  Fig.  109)  179 

Purple  (Progne  subis)    180 

Sand   (Riparia  riparia) (Plate  19,  Fig.no)  179 

Meadowlark  (Sturnella  magna)    193 

Megapodes 78 

Megascops  asio  (Screech  Owl)    162 

Megaquiscalus  major  (Boat-tailed  Grackle)    193 


248  INDEX 


PAGE 


Melanerpes  erythrocephalus  (Red-headed  Woodpecker) 

(Plate  7,  Fig.  29) 169 

Meleagris  gallopavo  (Mexican  Wild  Turkey) ..  (Plate  27, 

Fig.  155)    80 

ocellata   (Honduras  Turkey)    81 

sylvestris  (Eastern  Wild  Turkey) 81 

Melopsittacus  undulatus  (Grass  Paroquet) (Plate  8, 

Fig.  38)   138 

Melospiza  cinerea  melodia  (Eastern  Song  Sparrow)   216 

Menura  superba  (Lyre-bird) (Plate  14,  Fig.  73)  177 

Merganser,  Hooded  (Lophodytes  cucullatus) 46 

merganser  (Goosander)  .  .  (Plate  36,  Fig.  207)  45 

Mergus  albellus   (Smew) (Plate  36,  Fig.  210)  46 

Meropella  leucoptera   (White-winged  Dove)    : . . .  131 

Merops  apiaster  (European  Bee-eater) . .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  42)  145 

Merula  migratoria  (American  Robin)    199 

"       torquatus  (Ring  Ouzel)    196 

Microglossus  atterrimus  (Great  Black  Cockatoo) 137 

Miliaria  miliaria  (Corn  bunting)  ....  (Plate  15,  Fig.  86)  222 

Milvus  milvus  (European  Red  Kite) (Plate  4,  Fig.  17)  60 

Mockingbird   (Mimus  polyglottos) (Plate)  188 

Molothrus  ater  (Cowbird)    193 

Monticola  saxatalis  (Rock  Thrush)  . . .  (Plate  12,  Fig.  57)  196 

Moor-hen   (Gallinula  chloropus) (Plate  29,  Fig.  165)  99 

Motmot,  Lesson  Mexican    143 

Motacilla  alba  (White  Wagtail)    208 

lugubris  (Pied  Wagtail)  . . .  (Plate  n,  Fig.  53)  208 

melanope  (Grey  Wagtail) .  .  (Plate  n,  Fig.  52)  208 

Murre  (Uria  lomvia) (Plate  40,  Fig.  238)  122 

Muscicapa  grisola  (Spotted  Flycatcher)  .  (Plate  10,  Fig.  47)  180 

Mycteria  americana   ( Jabiru)    39 

Myarchus  luteiventris  (Great  Crested  Flycatcher)   176 

N 

Neophron  percnopterus    (Egyptian  Vulture) ....  (Plate    I, 

Fig.   2)    73 

Nestor  notabilis   (Kea) 134 

Nettion  crecca  (European  Teal) (Plate  35,  Fig.  202)  48 

carolinensis   (Green-winged  Teal)    48 

Nightingale    (Daulias  luscinia) (Plate   12,  Fig.  59)  198 

Nightjar,  Common  European  (Caprimulgus  europaeus) .... 

(Plate  19,  Fig.   in)    149 


INDEX  249 

PAGE 

Nighthawk   ( Chordeiles  virginianus)    149 

Noddy  ( Anous  stolidus)    119 

Nucifraga  caryocatactes  (Nutcracker)  .  (Plate  20,  Fig.  118)  231 
Numenius  arguatus   (European  Curlew) ..  (Plate  31,  Fig. 

176)    113 

borealis   (Eskimo  curlew)    113 

hudsonicus   (Hudsonian)    113 

longirostris   (Long-billed  Curlew)    112 

Numida  meleagris  (Guinea  Fowl) .  . .  (Plate  27,  Fig.  154)  81 

Nutcracker  (Nucifraga  caryocatactes ).( Plate  20,  Fig.  118)  231 

Nuthatch,  European  (Sitta  caesia) ...  (Plate  21,  Fig.  128)  185 

Red-breasted    (Sitta  canadensis)    186 

White-breasted    (Sitta  carolinensis)    185 

Nuthatches 184 

Nyctea  nyctea  (Snowy  Owl) (Plate  5,  Fig.  23)  160 

Nycticorax     nycticorax     nagvius      (Black-crowned     Night 

Heron)     35 

Nyctanassa  violaceus  (Yellow-crowned  Night  Heron) ....  35 

O 

Oceanodroma  leucorhoa  (Leach's  Petrel) ..  (Plate  37,  Fig. 

214)    2O 

Oidemia  fusca  (Velvet  Scoter) (Plate  36,  Fig.  212)  46 

Old  Squaw  (Harelda  hyemalis) (Plate  36,  Fig.  208  47 

Olor  atratus  (Australian  Black  Swan) 54 

"      buccinator  (Trumpeter  Swan)    55 

"      columbianus  (Whistling  Swan)   55 

Oreortyx  pictus  (Mountain  Partridge) 92 

Oriole,  Baltimore  (Icterus  galbula)    191 

"         Golden  (Oriolus  galbula) (Plate  II,  Fig.  51)  190 

Orioles    190 

Ortalis  vetula  maccali   (Chacalacca)    79 

Ortolan   (Emberiza  hortulana) (Plate  16,  Fig.  87)  223 

Oscines    176 

Osprey   (Pandion  haliaetus) (Plate  2,  Fig..  6)  69 

Otis  tarda  (Great  Bustard) (Plate  30,  Fig.  169)  98 

Ostrich    (Struthio  camelus) (Plate  28,  Fig.   157)  5 

Otocoris  alpestris   ( Horned  Lark)    211 

Ouzel,  Ring  (Merula  torquatus) (Plate  n,  Fig.  56)  196 

"       European  Water  (Cinclus  cinclus) (Plate  10, 

Fig.   50)    .  • 194 

Oven-bird   (Seiurus  aurocapillus) 205 


250  INDEX 

PAGE 

Owl,  American  Barn   (Strix  pratincola)    161 

European  Barn  (Strix  flammea)..  (Plate  5,  Fig.  21)  162 

Barred   (Syrnium  varium)    162 

Great  Eagle  (Bubo  bubo) (Plate  5,  Fig.  18)  159 

Great  Grey  (Scotiaptix  nubulosa)    162 

Great  Horned   (Bubo  virginianus)    158 

American  Hawk    (Surnia  ulula  caparoch) 163 

Little   (Athene  noctua) (Plate  5,  Fig.  22)  160 

European  Long-eared  (Asio  otus)  . .  (Plate  5,  Fig.  20)  161 

Little  Screech  (Megascops  asio)    162 

Snowy   (Nyctea  nyctea) (Plate  5,  Fig.  23)  160 

Tawny  (Syrnium  aluco) (Plate  5,  Fig.  19)  161 

Oxyechus    vociferus    (Killdeer) 103 

Oyster-catcher,  Black    (Haematopus  bachmani) 112 

American  (Haematopus  palliatus)    112 

P 

Pandion  haliaetus  (Osprey) (Plate  2,  Fig.  6)  69 

Padda  orizyvora  (Java  Sparrow) (Plate  17,  Fig.  99)  222 

Paroquet,  Carolina  (Conurus  carolinensis) (Plate  7, 

Fig.   32)    135 

Zebra  grass    (Melopsittacus  undulatus) ..  (Plate 

8,  Fig.  38) 138 

Parrot,   Blue-fronted  Amazon    (Amazona  aestiva)  ..  (Plate 

8,  Fig.  37)    136 

Grey.  (Psittacus  erythacus)  ....  (Plate  7,  Fig.  33)  134 

Kea  (Nestor  notabilus)    134 

"       Owl    (Stringops  habroptilus) 138 

Partridge,  California    (Lophortyx  calif ornicus) 92 

Common  European  (Perdix  perdix) . .  (Plate  24, 

Fig.    144)    87 

Gambel  (Lophortyx  gambelii) ..  (Plate  41,  Fig. 

245)     92 

Mountain  (Oreortyx  pictus)    92 

Plumed    (Plumiferous)     92 

Red-legged   Rock    (Cacabis  saxatilis) (Plate 

25,  Fig.  145)    87 

Scaled   (Callipepla  squamata) 92 

Parus  ater  (Coal  Tit) <Plate  15,  Fig.  80)  183 

atricapillus   (Chickadee)    184 

"      coerulus  (Blue  Tit) (Plate  15,  Fig.  83.  182 

"      major  (Great  Tit) (Plate  15,  Fig.  84)  183 


INDEX  251 

PAGE 

Passer  domesticus  (European  House  Sparrow)  .  .  (Plate  16, 

Fig.  93)    215 

montanus  (European  Tree  Sparrow) ....  (Plate  16, 

Fig.   94)     216 

PASSERIFORMES    172 

Passerina  nivalis  (Snow  Bunting) ....  (Plate  16,  Fig.  89)  22 1 

Pavo  cristatus   (Peacock) (Plate  25,  Fig.   148)  84 

"      muticus    ( Javan  Peacock)    85 

Pavoncella  pugnax   (Ruff) (Plate  31,  Fig.   181)  in 

Peacock   (Pavo  cristatus) (Plate  25,  Fig.   148)  84 

"       Javan   ( Pavo  muticus)    ,  . . .  85 

Pediaecestes  phasianellus  (Sharp-tailed  Grouse) 89 

Pelican,  American  White  (Pelecanus  erythrorhynchus) 28 

Brown  (Pelecanus  occidentalis) 29 

"       European  (Pelecanus  onocrotalus) . .  (Plate  37,  Fig. 

220)     28 

Pelicans 28 

Pelicanus  erythrorhynchus   (American  White  Pelican) 28 

occidentalis  (Brown  Pelican)    29 

onocrotalis  (European  Pelican)  .  .  (Plate  37,  Fig. 

220)     28 

Pelidna  alpina  (Dunlin) (Plate  32,  Fig.  185)  108 

Penguin,   Emperor   (Aptenodytes  longirostris)    21 

King   (Aptenodytes  patagonica) ..  (Plate  40,  Fig. 

234)    21 

Little  (Aptenodytes  parvus)  .  (Plate  40,  Fig.  235)  21 

Perisoreus  canadensis  (Canada  Jay)    231 

Perdix  perdix  (European  Partridge)  .  .  (Plate  24,  Fig.  144)  87 

Petrel,  Giant 21 

Leach's  (Oceanodroma  leucorhoa)  .  .  (Plate  37,  Fig. 

214)    20 

"       Little  Stormy  (Procellaria  pelagica)    20 

Snow     20 

Petrels 18 

Petrochelidon  lunifrous  (Cliff  Swallow)    180 

Pewee,  Wood   (Contopus  virens)    176 

Phsenicopterus  roseus   (European  Flamingo)  ....  (Plate  33, 

Fig.    189)    42 

ruber   (American  Flamingo)    42 

Phaethon  asthereus  (Tropic  Bird) ....  (Plate  37,  Fig.  216)  32 

Phalarope,  Wilson's   (Crymophilus  fulicarius)    113 

Phalocorax  carbo  (Common  Cormorant)  ..  (Plate  37,  Fig. 

218)   24 


252  INDEX 

PAGE 

Phalocorax  harrisi   (Harris's  Cormorant)    25 

Pharomacrus  mocinno   (Resplendent  Trogon)    165 

Phasianus  colchicus   (Common  European  Pheasant) 

(Plate  26,  Fig.  150)    82 

reevesi  (Reeves  Pheasant)    84 

torquatus  (Ring-necked  Pheasant)    82 

Pheasant,    Common    European    (Phasianus    colchicus) 

(Plate  26,  Fig.  150)    82 

Argus    (Argusianus  argus) ....  (Plate  26,  Figs. 

152,   153)    84 

Golden  (Chrysolophus  pictus) .  . .  (Plate  25,  Figs. 

146,   147)    83 

Impeyan   (Lophophorus  impeyanus)    83 

Lady  Amherst  (Chrysolophus  amherstiae) 84 

Reeves  (Phasianus  reevesi)    84 

Ring-necked   (Phasianus  torquatus)    82 

Silver    (Gennaeus    nycthemerus) ....  (Plate    26, 

Fig.    151)    83 

Philohela  minor  (American  Woodcock)   106 

Phcebe   ( Sayornis  phoebe)    1 75 

Phoebetria  fuliginosa  (Sooty  Albatross)    19 

PHCENIC.OPTERI    23 

Phylloscopus  sibilatrix  (Wood  Wren)  .  .  (Plate  13,  Fig.  67)  202 

Pica  pica  (European  Magpie) (Plate  20,  Fig.  115)  231 

"       "     hudsonia   (American  Magpie)    231 

vanicus)     209 

PICI    164 

Picus  martius  (Great  Black  Woodpecker) ..  (Plate  6,  Fig. 

28)   1 68 

Pigeon,  Band-tailed   (Columba  fasciata)    132 

"       Blood-breasted  (Columba  livia  var.)    128 

"       Carrier   (Columba  livia  var.)    131 

Crowned  (Goura  coronata)  .  .  (Plate  23,  Fig.  136)  128 

"       Fantail    (Columba  livia  var.)    132 

"       Nicobar    (Caloenas  nicobarica)     128 

"       Passenger    (Ectopistes    migratorius) ....  (Plate   22, 

Fig.  133)   «6 

Pouter  (Columba  livia,  var.)  ..(Plate  23,  Fig.  134)  130 

"       Wood  (Columba  palumbus)    .(Plate  22,  Fig.  132)  129 

Pinicola  enucleator  (Pine  Grosbeak)  ..( Plate  16,  Fig.  92)  218 

Pintail  (Dafila  acuta) (Plate  35,  Fig.  205)  47 

Pipit,  American   (Anthus  pensilvanicus)    209 

"      Meadow   (Anthus  pratensis)    209 

"      Tree  (Anthus  trivialis) (Plate  10,  Fig.  49)  209 


INDEX  253 

PAGE 

Pipits  207 

Piranga  erythromelas  (Scarlet  Tanager) 225 

rubra  (Summer  Tanager)  226 

Platalea  leucorodia  (European  Spoonbill)  .  .  (Plate  33,  Fig. 

190)  39 

Plautus  impennes  (Great  Auk)  123 

Plegadis  autumnalis  (Glossy  Ibis) 41 

Plover,  Golden  (Charadrius  dominicus) ..  (Plate  30,  Fig. 

170)  102 

"  Kentish  (^Egialitis  alexandrina)  ..  (Plate  30,  Fig. 

174)    103 

Piping  (^gialitis  meloda)    103 

"       Ringed  (^Egialitis  hiaticula) .  (Plate  30,  Fig.  173)  102 

Podilymbus  podiceps   (Pied-billed  Grebe)    17 

Polyborus  cherivay   (Caracara) (Plate)  68 

Porzana  jamaicensis  (Little  Black  Rail)    98 

porzana  (Spotted  Crake)  ....  (Plate  29,  Fig.  166)  96 

Carolina  (Carolina  Rail)    97 

Pratincola  rubicola  (Stonechat) (Plate  12,  Fig.  62)  197 

Pratincole  (Glareola  pratincola) (Plate  31,  Fig.  175)  101 

Progne  subis  (Purple  martin)   180 

Psittacus  erythacus  (Grey  Parrot)  . .  (Plate  7,  Fig.  33) 134 

PSITTACI    133 

Psophia  crepitans  (Trumpeter)    95 

Ptarmigan,  Alpine  (Lagopus  mutus)  .  .  (Plate  24,  Fig.  143)  89 

Willow  (Lagopus  lagopus)    90 

Puffin  (Fratercula  arctica) (Plate  39,  Fig.  233)  122 

"     Horned   (Fratercula  corniculata)    123 

"     Tufted   (Lunda  cirrhata)    123 

Puffinus  puffinus  (Manx  Shearwater)  ..(Plate  37,  Fig.  215)  20 

PYGOPODES 14 

Pyrrhula  pyrrhula  (Bullfinch) (Plate  16,  Fig.  91)  218 

Q 

Quail,  Common  European  (Coturnix  coturnix) .  .  (Plate  24, 

Fig.  41)   88 

Quetzel    165 

Querquedula  discors  (Blue-winged  Teal)    48 

Quiscalus  quiscula  (Purple  Grackle)    193 

R 

Rail,  Clapper  (Rallus  crepitans)    97 

King   (Rallus  elegans) 97 

"     Little  Black  (Porzana  jamaicensis) 98 


254  INDEX 

PAGE 

Rail,  Virginia  (Rallus  virginianus) 97 

Water  (Rallus  aquaticus) (Plate  29,  Fig.  163)  98 

Rallus  crepitans  (Clapper  Rail)    97 

elegans  (King  Rail)    97 

Raven,  American  (Corvus  corax  sinuatus)    229 

European   (Corvus  corax)  ....  (Plate  20,  Fig.   116)  229 
Recurvirostra  avocetta  (European  Avocet)  .  (Plate  32,  Fig. 

184)     104 

Redpoll  (Acanthis  linaria)   220 

Redshank  (Totanus  totanus) (Plate  32,  Fig.  182)  112 

Redstart,  American   (Setophaga  ruticilla) 203 

Black  (Ruticilla  titys) (Plate  13,  Fig.  66)  197 

European  (Ruticilla  phcenicurus)  .  (Plate  13,  Fig. 

65)    •  - 197 

Reedbird  (Dolichonyx  orizyvorus)    192 

Regulus  calendula  (Ruby-crowned  Kinglet) 202 

regulus    (Golden-crested   Wren).  (Plate    13,    Fig. 

69)     2OI 

satrapa    (Golden-crowned    Kinglet) 202 

Rhampastos  toco  (Giant  Toucan) (Plate  9,  Fig.  41)  166 

Rhea,  Common  (Rhea  americana) ....  (Plate  28,  Fig.  158)  4,  5 
Rhynchotus  rufescens    (Rufus  Tinamou) .  (Plate  41,   Fig. 

240) ,  8 

Rhynchops   nigra    (Black  Skimmer) 118 

Riparia  riparia  (Bank  Swallow) (Plate  19,  Fig.  no)  179 

Rissa  tridactyla  (Kittiwake) (Plate  38,  Fig.  225)  117 

Road-runner  (Geococcyx  californiaus) .  (Plate  41,  Fig.  246)  141 

Robin,  American  (Merula  migratoria) 199 

European  (Erythacus  rubecula)  .  (Plate  12,  Fig.  61)  198 

Roller,  European  (Coracias  garrulus) .  .  .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  43)  142 

Rook  (Corvus  frugilegus) (Plate  20,  Fig.  117)  229 

Ruff  (Pavoncella  pugnax) (Plate  31,  Fig.  181)  ill 

Rupicola  rupicola  (Cock-of-the-rock)  .  (Plate  19,  Fig.  112)  173 
Ruticilla  phcenicurus  (European  Redstart) .  (Plate  13,  Fig. 

65)    197 

S 

Sanderling  (Calidris  arenaria) (Plate  32,  Fig.  188)  no 

Sandpiper,  Curlew  (Erolia  ferruginea)  .  (Plate  32,  Fig.  186)  109 

Least  (Actodromas  minutilla)    109 

Sandpiper,  Semipalmated    (Ereunetes  pusillus)    109 

Sapsucker,  Yellow-bellied  (Sphyrapicus  varius) 169 

Sarcoramphus  gryphus  (South  American  Condor)  .  (Plate  i, 

Fig.    i) 74 


INDEX  255 

PAGE 

Saxicola  aenanthe  (Wheatear) (Plate  12,  Fig.  60)  196 

Scolopax  rusticola   (European  Woodcock) .  (Plate  31,  Fig. 

177)    106 

Scoter,  Velvet  (Oidemia  fusca) (Plate  36,  Fig.  212)  46 

Scotiaptix  nebulosa  (Great  Grey  Owl) 162 

Secretary  Bird  ( Serpentarius  secretarius)  .  (Plate  3,  Fig.  13)  59 

Seiurus  aurocapillus   (Oven-bird)    205 

Seriema  (Cariama  cristata) (Plate  42,  Fig.  245)  94 

Serin  (Serinus  hortulanus) (Plate  18,  Fig.  102)  214 

Serinus  canarius  (Canary) (Plate  18,  Fig.  105)  215 

Serpentarius  secretarius  (Secretary  Bird)  .  (Plate  3,  Fig.  13)  59 

Shearwater,  Manx  (Puffinus  puffinus)  .  (Plate  37,  Fig.  215)  20 

Sheldrake  (Tadorna  tadorna) (Plate  36,  Fig.  209)  50 

Shrike,  Great  Grey  (Lanius  excubitor)  .  (Plate  10,  Fig.  46)  181 

Loggerhead    (Lanius  ludovicianus) 182 

Northern   (Lanius  borealis) ...  1 181 

Red-backed  (Lanius  collurio)  ..  (Plate  10,  Fig.  45)  182 

Shrikes   181 

Sialis  sialis  (Bluebird)    199 

Siskin   (Spinus  spinus) (Plate   18,  Fig.    103)  214 

Pine  (Spinus  pinus) 214 

Sitta  canadensis    (Red-breasted   Nuthatch) 186 

"     carolinensis    (White-breasted   Nuthatch) 185 

"     caesia  (European  Nuthatch) ....  (Plate  21,  Fig.  127)  185 

Skimmer,  Black    (Rhynchops  nigra) 1 18 

Skua,   Parasitic    ( Stercorarius  parasiticus) .  (Plate   38,   Fig. 

226) 121 

Skylark   (Alauda  arvensis) (Plate  14,  Fig.  74)  210 

Smew   (Mergus  albellus) (Plate  36,  Fig.  210)  46 

Snake-bird  (Anhinga  anhinga) (Plate  38,  Fig.  222)  25 

Snipe,  Common  European  (Gallinago  gallinago) .  (Plate  31, 

Fig.    178)    105 

Great   (Gallinago  media) (Plate  31,  Fig.  179)  105 

"      Jack   (Gallinago  gallinula) 105 

Snowbird    (Junco  hyemalis) 22 1 

Snowflake  ( Passerina  nivalis)    221 

Somateria  mollissima  (Eider  Duck)  .  .  .  (Plate  35,  Fig.  206)  46 

Sparrow,  Chipping   (Spizella  socialis) 216 

Field    (Spizella  pusilla) 216 

House  (Passer  domesticus)  .  .  (Plate  16,  Fig.  93)  215 

Hedge  (Accentor  modularis)  .  (Plate  12,  Fig.  58)  203 

Java  (Padda  oryziva) (Plate  17,  Fig.  99)  222 

Song  (Melospiza  cinerea  melodia) 216 

American  Tree   (Spizella  monticola) 216 


256  INDEX 

PAGE 

Sparrow,  European  Tree   (Passer  montanus) ..  (Plate   16, 

Fig.  94)   216 

Spathura     underwoodi      (Racquet-tailed      Humming-bird) 

(Plate  21,  Fig  125) 153 

Speotyto  cunicularia  hypogaea  (Burrowing  Owl) 160 

Sphyrapicus  varius  (Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker) 169 

Spinus  pinus  (Pine  Siskin) 214 

"       spinus   (Siskin) (Plate   18,  Fig.   103)  214 

Spizella  montanus    (European  Tree   Sparrow) .  (Plate   16, 

Fig.   94)    216 

monticola   (American  Tree  Sparrow) 216 

Spoonbill,  European   (Platalea  leucorodia)  .  (Plate  33,  Fig. 

190) 39 

Roseate  (Ajaia  ajaja) 39 

Sporaeginthus  amandava  (Amaduvade)  .  (Plate  7,  Fig.  96)  221 

Starling,  Common  (Sturnus  vulgaris)  .  (Plate  20,  Fig.  120)  194 

Starlings 194 

STEGANOPODES    23 

Stercorarius  parasitacus    (Parasitic  Skua).  (Plate  38,  Fig. 

226)    120 

Sterna  antillarum   (Little  Tern) 119 

anaethetus   (Bridled  Tern) 120 

"       fuliginosa  (Sooty  Tern) 120 

maxima  (Royal  Tern) 119 

"       minuta  (Least  Tern) (Plate  39,  Fig.  227)  120 

Stelgidopteryx  serripennis  (Rough-wing  Swallow) 179 

Stilt,  Black-necked   (Himantopus  mexicanus) 104 

"     European  (Himantopus  himantopus) .  (Plate  30,  Fig. 

172)    104 

Stint,  Little  (Actodromas  minuta) . . .  (Plate  32,  Fig.  183)  109 

Stonechat  (Pratincola  rubicola) (Plate  12,  Fig.  62)  197 

Stork,   African  Adjutant    (Leptoptilus  crumenifer) .( Plate 

34,  Fig.  195) 39 

European  White  (Ciconia  ciconia) .  (Plate  33,  Fig. 

191)      38 

Indian  Adjutant  (Leptoptilus  argala) 38 

Whale-headed    39 

Streptopelia  risoria  (Ring  Dove) 128 

STRIGES   156 

Stringops  habroptilus   (Owl  Parrot)    138 

Strix  flammea  (European  Barn  Owl) .  .  .  (Plate  5,  Fig.  21)  162 

pratincola  (American  Barn  Owl) 161 

Struthio  camelus  (African  Ostrich) . .  .  (Plate  28,  Fig.  157)  5 

Sturnella  magna  (Meadowlark) 193 


INDEX  257 

PAGE 

Sturnus  vulgan's  (Starling) (Plate  20,  Fig.  120)  194 

Sula  bassana  (Common  Gannet) (Plate  37,  Fig.  217)  27 

Surnia  ulula  caparoch   (American  Hawk  Owl) 163 

Swallow,  American  Bank  (riparia  riparia)  .  (Plate  19,  Fig. 

IIO)      ; 179 

American  Barn  (Hirundo  erythrogastra) 179 

European    Barn    (Hirundo    rustica)  .  (Plate    18, 

Fig.    108) 179 

Cliff   (Petrochelidon  lunifrons) 180 

Rough-wing    ( Stergidopteryx    serripennis) 179 

Tree    (Iridoprocne  bicolor) 180 

Swallows    178 

Swan,  Australian  Black  (Olor  atratus) 54 

"      European    Mute    (Cygnus   olor) .  (Plate    35,    Fig. 

201)    54 

Black-necked    (Olor  nigricollis) 55 

Trumpeter  (Olor  buccinator)    55 

"      Whistling  (Olor  columbianus)    55 

Swift,  Common  European  (Cypselus  apus)  .  (Plate  18,  Fig. 

107) 150 

Chimney   (Cha3tura  pelagica 151 

Sylvia  atricapilla  (Blackcap) (Plate  13,  Fig.  72)  201 

Symphemia  semipalmata   (Willet) 106 

Syrnium  aluco  (Tawny  Owl) (Plate  5,  Fig.  19)  161 

varium  (Barred  Owl) 162 

T 

Tadorna  tadorna  (Sheldrake) (Plate  36,  Fig.  209  50 

Tanager,  Paradise  (Calospiza  tatao)  .  .  .  (Plate  19,  Fig.  113  226 

Scarlet   (Piranga  erythromelas) 225 

Summer  (Piranga  rubra)    226 

Tanagers    225 

Tantalus  locutor  (Wood  Ibis) 40 

Tern,  Bridled  (Sterna  anaethetus)    I2O 

Common  (Sterna  hirundo) (Plate  39,  Fig.  230)  119 

"      Least,   European    (Sterna  minuta) .  (Plate   39,   Fig. 

227)      120 

"      Little    (Sterna   antillarum) 120 

Noddy  ( Anous  stolidus) 119 

Royal   ( Sterna  maxima) 119 

Sandwich  (Sterna  sandvicencis)  .  (Plate  39,  Fig.  229)  120 

Sooty   (Sterna  fuliginosa)    I2O 

Tetrao  urogallus  (Capercailzie) (Plate  24,  Fig.  138)  90 

Tetrastes  bonasia  (Hazel  Grouse)  ....  (Plate  24,  Fig.  140)  91 


258  INDEX 


PAGE 


Tetrax  tetrax  (Little  Bustard) (Plate  29,  Fig.  162)  99 

Thrasaetus  harpyia  (Harpy  Eagle) ..  (Plate  42,  Fig.  241)  66 

Thrasher,  Brown   (Toxostoma  rufum) 189 

Thrush,  Hermit   (Hylocichla  guttata  pallasii) 200 

Missel   (Turdus  viscivorus)  ..  (Plate  n,  Fig.  55)  195 

Rock  (Monticola  saxatalis) .  .  .  (Plate  12,  Fig.  57)  196 

Wilson's    (Hylocichla  fuscescens) 200 

Wood    (Hylocichla   mustelina) 199 

Tichodroma  muraria  (Wall-creeper) .  (Plate  21,  Fig.  126)  187 
Tinamou,  Rufus  (Rhynchotus  rufescens) ..  (Plate  41,  Fig. 

240)    8 

Tit,  Blue  (Parus  coeruleus) (Plate  15,  Fig.  83)  182 

1    Coal  (Parus  ater) (Plate  15,  Fig.  80)  183 

"    Crested   (Lophophanes  cristatus) .  (Plate  15,  Fig.  82)  183 

:    Great   (Parus  major) (Plate   15,  Fig.  84)  183 

"    Long-tailed  (Acredula  caudata) .  ,  .  (Plate  14,  Fig.  78)  183 

Titmouse,  Tufted  (Baeolophus  bicolor) 184 

Titmice    182 

Topaza  pella  (Topaz  Humming-bird)  .  (Plate  21,  Fig.  124)  153 

Totanus  melanoleucus   (Greater  Yellowlegs) 106 

nebularius  (Greenshank)  ....  (Plate  31,  Fig.  180)  107 

"       totanus    (Redshank) (Plate  32,   Fig.    182)  112 

Toucan,  Giant  (Rhampastos  toco) ....  (Plate  9,  Fig.  41)  166 

Short-billed 166 

Towhee   (Pipilo  erythrophthalmus) 22O 

Toxostoma  rufum  (Brown  Thrasher) 189 

Tringa  canutus  (Knot) (Plate  32,  Fig.  187)  no 

Trochilus  colubris  (Ruby-throated  Humming-bird) 154 

Trogon,  Resplendent  (Pharomacrus  mocinno) 165 

"        African  (Hapaloderma  narina) .  (Plate  9,  Fig.  44)  165 

TROGONES    164 

Tropic-bird  (Phaeton  aethereus) (Plate  37,  Fig.  216)  32 

Trumpeter    (Psophia  crepitans) 95 

TUBINARES    14 

Turdus  viscivorus  (Missel  Thrush)  . . .  (Plate  n,  Fig.  55)  195 

Turkey,  Eastern  Wild  (Meleagris  sylvestris) 81 

"       Honduras    (Meleagris  ocellata), 8 1 

"       Mexican  Wild   (Meleagris  gallopavo) .  (Plate  27, 

Fig.    155) 80 

turtur  (Turtle  Dove) (Plate  23,  Fig.  137)  127 

Tympanuchus  americanus   (Prairie  Hen) 89 

Tyrannus  tyrannus   (Kingbird) 175 


INDEX  259 

PAGE 

u 

Upupa  epops  (Hoopoe) (Plate  22,  Fig.  129)  145 

Una  lomvia  (Murre) (Plate  40,  Fig.  238)  122 

V 
Vidua  paradisea   (Paradise  Whydah-bird) .  (Plate   17,  Fig. 

95) 221 

Vanellus  vanellus  (Lapwing) (Plate  30,  Fig.  171)  103 

Vireo,  Red-eyed   (Vireo  olivaceus) 206 

"       White-eyed   (Vireo  noveborensis) 206 

Vireos    206 

Vulture,  Black   (Catharista  urubu) x. .  .  77 

Egyptian      (Neophron     percnopterus) .  (Plate     I, 

Fig.    2) 73 

Griffon  (Gyps  fulvus) (Plate  2,  Fig.  5)  73 

Turkey  (Cathartes  aura)  ....  (Plate  41,  Fig.  243)  76 

"       King  (Gypagus  papa) (Plate  2,  Fig.  5)  74 

W 

Wagtail,  Grey  (Motacilla  melanope) .  (Plate  1 1,  Fig.  52)  208 

Pied  (Motacilla  lugubris)  .  . .  (Plate  n,  Fig.  53)  208 

White  (Motacilla  alba)    208 

Yellow  (Budytes  rayi) 208 

Wagtails    207 

Warbler,  Blue-winged   (Helminthophila  pinus) 204 

Chestnut-sided    (Dendroica  pensylvanica) 205 

Hooded   (Wilsonia  mitrata) 204 

Icterine  (Hypolais  hypolais)  .  (Plate  13,  Fig.  70)  202 
Marsh   (Acrocephalus  palustris)  .  (Plate  13,  Fig. 

64) 202 

Myrtle  (Dendroica  coronata)    204 

Parula  ( Compsothlypis  americana)    205 

Warblers 2OO 

Waxwing,  Bohemian    (Ampelis  garrulus) .  (Plate   18,   Fig. 

106)    190 

Cedar   (Ampelis  cedrorum) 190 

Waxwings    1 89 

Wheatear  (Saxicola  aenanthe) (Plate  12,  Fig.  60)  196 

Whippoorwill   (Antrostomus  vociferus) 149 

White-throat  (Sylvia  cinerea) (Plate  13,  Fig.  71)  201 

Whydah-bird,  Paradise  (Viddua  paradisea) .  (Plate  17,  Fig. 

95)    221 


260  INDEX 

PAGE 

Widgeon  (Marecca  penelope) (Plate  35,  Fig.  204)  47 

Willet    (Symphemia  semipalmata)    106 

Wilson,  Alexander    126 

Woodcock,  American    (Philohela  minor)  . 106 

European    (Scolopax  rusticola) .  (Plate  31,  Fig. 

177) ;••.••-. Io6 

Woodpecker,  Ivory-billed  (Campephilus  principalis) .  (Plate 

6,  Fig.  25) 168 

Downy    (Dryobates  pubescens) 169 

Great  Black   (Picus  martius) .  (Plate  6,  Fig. 

28)      168 

Great  Spotted   (Picus  major) 169 

Green   (Gecinus  viridis). .  (Plate  6,  Fig.  26)  169 
Grey-headed    Green    (Gecinus   canus) .  (Plate 

6,  Fig.  24)    169 

Hairy   (Dryobates  villosus) 169 

"  Lesser  Spotted    (Dryobates  minor) .  (Plate  6, 

Fig.    27) 169 

Red-headed      (Melanerpes      erythrocephalus) 

(Plate  7,  Fig.  29) 169 

Wren,  Carolina  (Thyothorus  ludovicianus)    88 

"       Golden-crested    (Regulus  regulus)  .  (Plate   13,  Fig. 

69) 201 

"       European  House   (Troglodytes  troglodytes) .  (Plate 

13,  Fig.  68)    188 

"       Common  American  House  (Troglodytes  aedon)  . . .  187 

"       Marsh  (Telmatodytes  palustris) 188 

"       Winter    (Olbiorchilus    hiemalis) 188 

Wood    (Phylloscopus    sibilatrix) .  (Plate    13,    Fig. 

67)     202 

Wrens    187 

Wryneck  (Jynx  torquilla) (Plate  7,  Fig.  31)  170 

Y 

Yellowhammer  (Emberiza  citrinella) . .  (Plate  15,  Fig.  85)  223 

Yellowlegs   (Totanus  flavipes)    106 

"           Greater  (Totanus  melanoleucus)    106 

Yellowthroat,  Maryland  (Geothlypis  trichas) 204 

Z 

Zapornia  parva  (Little  Crake) (Plate  29,  Fig.  164)  97 

Zenaidura  macroura  (Mourning  Dove) 130 


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